Glass


 Physically: a rigid undercooled liquid
 no definite melting point
 a sufficiently high viscosity (greater than 1012 𝑃𝑎 ∙
𝑠)

 Chemically: the union of the nonvolatile inorganic

oxides resulting from the decomposition and fusion
of alkali and alkaline earth compounds, sand, and
other glass constituents, ending in a product with
random atomic structure
 Glass

 A completely vitrified product
 Exhibits compressive strength much greater than its
tensile strength
 Characteristics of Glass

 Transparent
 Has high resistance to chemical attack
 An excellent electrical insulator
 Has the ability to contain vacuum
 Absorbs, reflects or transmits light
 Extremely brittle
 History

 Pliny the Elder (or Gaius Plinius Secundus)
 Phoenecian merchants discovered glass
 6000 or 5000 B.C. – the Egyptians were making sham
jewels of glass which were often of fine
workmanship and marked beauty
 A.D. 290 – window glass
 Hand-blown window-glass cylinder was invented by
a 12th century monk
 History

 Medieval times – Venice enjoyed a monopoly as the
center of the glass industry
 15th century – use of window glass became general
 16th century – glass was made in Germany and
England
 History

 1688 – plate glass appeared as rolled product in
France
 History

 Glassworks in the United States were founded in
 1608 – Jamestown, Virginia
 1639 – Salem, Massachusetts
 Major improvements: purifying the batch materials
and increasing the fuel economy
 1900 – glass industry was art with closely guarded
secret formulas and empirical processes of
manufacture based primarily upon experiences
 History

 1914 – Fourcault process for drawing a sheet of glass
continuously was developed in Belgium
 Automatic machines were invented to speed up
production of bottles, light bulbs, etc…

 Composition

 Lime, silica, and soda form 90% of glass.
 Most important factors in making glass:
 Viscosity of molten oxides
 Relation between the viscosity and composition
 Composition

1. Fused Silica
2. Alkali Silicate
3. Soda-lime Glass
4. Lead Glass
5. Borosilicate Glass
6. Special Glasses
7. Glass Fibers
 Composition

1. Fused Silica (vitreous silica)
 high-temperature pyrolysis of silicon
tetrachloride or by fusion of quartz or pure sand
 Low expansion; high softening point
 Composition

2. Alkali Silicates
 Only two-component glasses of commercial
importance
 Silicate of soda solution (water (soluble) glass) –
used as an adhesive for paper in the manufacture
of corrugated-paper boxes (other uses:
fireproofing)
 Composition

3. Soda-lime Glass
 Constitutes 95% of all glass manufactured
 Used for containers of all kinds, flat glass,
automobile and other windows, tumblers, and
tableware
 Composition as a rule:
 𝑆𝑖𝑂2 : 70 – 74%
 𝐶𝑎𝑂 : 8 – 13%
 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 : 13 – 18%
 Composition

4. Lead Glass
 Obtained by substituting lead oxide for calcium
oxide in the glass melt
 High index of refraction and dispersion
 Composition

5. Borosilicate Glass
 Contains about 10 – 20% 𝐵2 𝑂3 , 80 – 87% silica,
and less than 10% 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂
 Low expansion coefficient, superior resistance to
shock, excellent chemical stability, and high
electrical resistance
 Composition

6. Special Glasses
 Colored and coated, opal, translucent, safety,
optical, photochromic glasses, and glass ceramics

7. Glass Fibers
 Produced from special glass compositions that are
resistant to weather conditions
 Raw Materials

 Sand
 should be almost pure quartz
 iron content shouldn’t exceed 0.45% for tableware
or 0.015% for optical glass (iron affects the color of
most glass)
 Soda (𝑁𝑎2 𝑂)
 Supplied by dense soda ash (𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 )
 Other sources: sodium bicarbonate, salt cake,
sodium nitrate (useful in oxidizing iron and in
accelerating the melting)
 Raw Materials

 Feldspars
 𝑅2 𝑂 ∙ 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ∙ 6𝑆𝑖𝑂2 (𝑅2 𝑂 represents 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 or 𝐾2 𝑂
or a mixture of both)
 Cheap, pure, and fusible
 Composed entirely of glass-forming oxides
 Alumina content serves to lower the melting
point of glass and to retard devitrification
 Raw Materials

 Borax
 Supplies glass with both 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 or boric oxide as a
minor ingredient
 Lowers the expansion coefficient and increases
chemical durability, and hardness or refractive
index
 Raw Materials

 Salt cake
 Removes the troublesome scum from tank
surfaces
 Arsenic trioxide may be added to facilitate the
removal of bubbles
 Nitrates of either sodium or potassium serve to
oxidize iron and make it less noticeable in the
finished glass
 Potassium nitrate or carbonate is employed in
many better grades of table, decorative, and
optical glass
 Raw Materials

 Cullet
 Crushed glass from imperfect articles, trim, and
other waste glass
 Facilitates melting and utilizes waste material
 May be as low as 10% of the charge or as high as
80%
 Raw Materials

 Refractory Blocks
 Developed because of the severe conditions
ecountered
 The latest practice in regenerators utilizes basic
refractories because of the alkali dust and vapors
 Furnace operating temperatures are limited by
silica-brick crowns (which are economical to use
in the industry)
 Chemical Reactions

 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 ∙ 𝑎𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂2
 𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 𝑏𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑎𝑂 ∙ 𝑏𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂2
 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝑐𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝐶 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 ∙ 𝑐𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐶𝑂
 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂
 2𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐶 → 2𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑂2
 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂3 + 𝑐𝑆𝑖𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑂 ∙ 𝑐𝑆𝑖𝑂2 + 𝑆𝑂2
 Manufacturing of Glass

 Transportation of raw materials to the plant
 Sizing of some raw materials
 Storage of raw materials
 Conveying, weighing, and mixing raw materials
Manufacturing of Glass

Manufacturing of Glass

Manufacturing of Glass

Methods of Manufacture

 4 Major phases
 Melting
 Shaping or forming
 Annealing
 Finishing
 Melting

 Glass furnaces may be classified as
 Pot furnace
 Tank Furnace
 Pot Furnace

 Approximate capacity of 2 t or less
 Used for small production of special glasses or
where it is essential to protect the melting of optical
glass and art glass by the casting process
 Pots – crucibles made of selected clay or platinum
 Very difficult to melt glass in this vessel without
contaminating the product or partly melting the
container itself, except when platinum is used
Pot Furnace

 Tank Furnace

 Batch materials are charged into one end of a large
“tank” built of refractory blocks, some of which
measure 38 x 9 x 1.5m and have a capacity of 1350 t
of molten glass
Tank Furnace

 Shaping or Forming

 Machine or hand molding
Most Common Types of
Machine Molding

 Window Glass
 Plate Glass – raw materials are fed into one end of
the furnace at a temperature as high as 1595℃
 Float Glass
 Bottles
 Light Bulbs
 Tubing
 Annealing

 Reduces strain
 Involves two operations:
 Holding a mass of glass above a certain critical
temperature long enough to reduce internal strain by
plastic flow to less than a predetermined maximum
 Cooling the mass to room temperature slowly enough
to hold the strain below this maximum
 Finishing

 Cleaning, grinding, polishing, cutting, sandblasting,
enameling, grading, and gaging.
Glass Industry in the
Philippines
