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9.3.1 Conservation Equations
Conservation of Mass:
u 1
rvr 0 (9.3)
x r r
x-momentum equation reduces to:
u v 1 dp 1 u
u vr r r M
r
(9.4)
x r dx r r
Conservation of Energy:
T T 1 T
vr r H
r
u (9.5)
x r r r
9.3.2 Apparent Shear Stress and Heat Flux
Similar to that of the flat plate:
app u
M (9.6)
r
qapp T
H (9.7)
cp r
3
9.3.3 Mean Velocity and Temperature
Mean Velocity
Calculating by evaluating the mass flow rate in the duct:
ro
m um A u 2 r dr
0
Assuming constant density:
ro ro
1 2
um 2
u 2 r dr 2 urdr (9.8)
ro 0 ro 0
Bulk Temperature
Evaluating by integrating the total energy of the flow:
ro
Turdr
Tm 0
ro
urdr
0
Can be simplified by substituting the mean velocity, equation (9.8),
4
ro
2
2
Tm Turdr (9.9)
um ro 0
9.4 Universal Velocity Profile
9.4.1 Results from Flat Plate Flow
Already seen that the universal velocity profile in a pipe is very similar
to that of flow over a flat plate at zero or favorable pressure gradient.
We even adapted a pipe flow friction factor model to analyze flow over a
flat plate using the momentum integral method.
It is apparent, then, that the characteristics of the flow near the wall of
a pipe are not influenced greatly by the curvature of the wall of the radius
of the pipe.
Therefore a reasonable start to modeling pipe flow is to invoke the
two-layer model that we used to model flow over a flat plate:
Viscous Sublayer: u y (8.54)
1
Law of the Wall: u ln y B (8.58)
We also have continuous wall law models by Spalding (8.63) and
Reichardt (8.64) that have been applied to pipe flow. 5
Wall Coordinates for Internal Flow
Note that for pipe flow, the wall coordinates are a little different than for
flat-plate flow.
First, the y-coordinate for pipe flow is
y ro r (9.10)
So the wall coordinate y+ is
y r r o
r r u*
(9.11)
o
The velocity wall coordinate is the same as before,
u
u * (8.49)
u
and the friction velocity is the same,
u* o / (8.46)
The friction factor is based on the mean flow velocity instead of the
free-stream velocity: o
Cf
1 / 2 um
2 (9.12)
6
So the friction velocity can be expressed as:
u* um C f / 2
9.4.2 Development in Cylindrical Coordinates
The velocity profile data for pipe flow matches that of flat plate flow
o This fact allowed us to develop expressions for universal velocity
profiles solely from flat plate (Cartesian) coordinates.
Would we have achieved the same results if we had started from the
governing equations for pipe flow (i.e., cylindrical coordinates)?
Assume fully developed flow. x-momentum reduces to
1 r 1 p
(9.13)
r r x
Rearranging and integrating, we obtain an expression for the shear stress
anywhere in the flow:
r p
(r ) C (9.14)
2 x
The constant C is zero, since we would expect the velocity gradient (and
hence the shear stress) to zero at r = 0.
7
Evaluating (9.14) at r and ro and taking the ratio of the two gives:
(r ) r
(9.15)
o ro
This result shows that the local shear is a linear function of radial location.
But the Couette Flow assumption meant that τ is
approximately constant in the direction normal to the
wall! How do we reconcile this?
o Remember that the near-wall region over which we
make the Couette flow assumption covers a very
small distance.
o Therefore we could assume that, in that small
region vary close to the wall of the pipe, the shear
is nearly constant, τ = τo
o Thus the Couette assumption approximates the behavior near the
pipe wall as
u o
M constant (9.16)
r
Exp. data suggest that the near-wall behavior is not influenced by the
outer flow, or even the curvature of the wall.
8
9.4.3 Velocity Profile for the Entire Pipe
The velocity gradient (and the shear stress) is supposed to be zero at the
centerline of the pipe.
Unfortunately, none of the universal velocity profiles we’ve developed so
far behave this way
Reichardt attempted to account for the entire region of the pipe. He
suggested a model for eddy viscosity:
M y
r r
2
1 1 2 (9.17)
6 ro ro
Which leads to the following expression for the velocity profile:
1 1.5 1 r / ro
u ln y
B (9.18)
1 2 1 r / ro 2
Reichardt used κ= 0.40 and B = 5.5.
The profile does not account for the viscous sublayer, but as r →ro,
equation (9.18) does reduce to the original Law of the Wall form,
equation (8.58).
9
9.5 Friction Factor for Pipe Flow
9.5.1 Blasius Correlation for Smooth Pipe
Based on dimensional analysis and experimental data, Blasius developed
a purely empirical correlation for flow through a smooth circular pipe:
C f 0.0791ReD1/4 (4000<ReD<105) (9.19)
o The friction factor is based on the mean flow velocity,
o
Cf
1 / 2 um 2 (9.12)
Later correlations have proven to be more accurate and versatile, but this
correlation led to the development of the 1/7th Power Law velocity profile.
9.5.2 The 1/7th Power Law Velocity Profile
Discovered independently by Prandtl [7] and von Kármán [8].
Begin with the Blasius correlation, which can be recast in terms of wall
1/4
shear stress: 2 r u
o
0.0791 o m
or
1 / 2 um 2
o 0.03326 um7/4 ro1/4 1/4 (a)
10
Assume a power law velocity profile:
q
u y
(b)
uCL ro
Assume that the mean velocity in the flow can be related to the centerline
uCL constant u
velocity as:
(c)
Substituting (b) and (c) for the mean velocity in (a) yields :
7/4
y 1/ q
o (const ) u ro1/4 1/4
ro
Simplifies to:
o (const ) u 7/4 y ( 7/4 q ) ro(7/4 q 1/4) 1/4 (d)
Both Prandtl and von Kármán argued that the wall shear stress is not a
function of the size of the pipe.
Then the exponent on ro should be equal to zero.
Setting the exponent to zero, the value of q must be equal to 1/7, leading to
the classic 1/7th power law velocity profile,
11
1/7
u y
(9.20)
uCL ro
Experimental data show that this profile adequately models the velocity
profile through a large portion of the pipe, and is frequently used in
models for momentum and heat transfer.
Limitations:
o Accurate for only a narrow range of Reynolds numbers (roughly,
104 to 106).
o Yields an infinite velocity gradient at the wall
o Does not yield a gradient of zero at the centerline
Nikuradse’s Improvement to the 1/7th Power Law
Another student of Prandtl, Nikuradse [10] measured velocity profiles in
smooth pipe over a wide range of Reynolds numbers, and reported that
the exponent varied with Reynolds number,
n
u y
(9.21)
uCL ro
12
Also correlated pipe friction factor of the form
C
Cf (9.22)
Re1/D m
As one might expect, Nikuradse’s results show that the velocity profile
becomes fuller as the mean velocity increases.
u 2 1 yum Cf
ln B (9.23)
um C f 2
If we assume that the equation holds at any value of y, we could
evaluate the expression at the centerline of the duct, y = ro=D/2, where
u uCL :
uCL 2 1 Re D Cf
ln B (9.24)
um C f 2 2
We now have a functional relationship for the friction factor.
However, the ratio uCL/um is still unknown.
Evaluating the Mean Velocity for Prandtl’s Law
Goal is to integrate the Law of the Wall velocity profile (8.58) across
the pipe.
Start with expression for the mean velocity, equation (9.10). Using the
variable substitution y = ro – r , (9.10) becomes
14
r r
1 o 2 o
2
um u(2 r )dr 2 u( ro y )dy (9.25)
ro 0 ro 0
Then, substitute the Law of the Wall for u .
Performing the integration, it can be shown that the mean velocity
becomes
1 ro u *
3
um u ln
*
B (9.26)
2
Or, making substitutions again for u*
C f 1 ReD Cf 3
um um ln B (9.27)
2 2 2 2
Warning: the term we were trying to evaluate, um, cancels out of the
expression! However, uCL doesn’t not appear either.
We can use the above expression directly to find an expression for Cf.
Rearranging, and substituting the values κ= 0.41 and B = 5.0 gives
1
Cf / 2
2.44ln ReD C f / 2 0.349
15
This development ignores the presence of a viscous sublayer or a wake
region.
Empirically, a better fit to experimental data is
1
Cf / 2
2.46ln C f / 2 D C f / 2 0.29 (ReD 4000) (9.28)
18
Moody Chart:
19
9.6 Momentum-Heat Transfer Analogies
Development is applied to the case of a constant heat flux boundary
condition.
Strictly speaking, an analogy cannot be made in pipe flow for the case
of a constant surface temperature. But resulting models approximately
hold for this case as well.
Development
x-momentum equation (9.4) becomes, for hydrodynamically fully
developed flow,
1 dp 1 u
r M (9.33a)
dx r r r
20
o Note that in pipe flow the pressure gradient is non-zero, although
constant with respect to x. To ensure an analogy, then, the left side
of (9.33b) must then be constant.
o For thermally fully developed flow and a constant heat flux at the
wall, the shape of the temperature profile is constant with respect to x,
leading to:
dT
constant
dx
o So the analogy holds on the LHS.
Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions must match:
du(0) dT (0)
At r = 0: 0 (9.34a)
r r
At r = ro: u ( ro ) 0, T ( ro ) Ts ( x ) (9.34b)
du ( ro ) T ( ro )
o, k qo (9.34c)
dr r
If we normalize as follows: 21
u T Ts x r
U , , X and R
um Tm Ts L ro
We can show that both the governing equations and the boundary
conditions are identical in form.
9.6.1 Reynolds Analogy for Pipe Flow
Assume ν = α (Pr = 1) and εM = εH (Prt = 1)
o Same assumptions used to develop Reynold’s analogy for a flat plate
Then the governing equations (9.33a) and (9.33b) are identical.
Follow exactly the same process that we followed for the original
derivation, we find that the Reynolds analogy is essentially identical for
pipe flow,
qo Cf
St D (Pr 1)
um c p (Ts Tm ) 2
Nu D Cf
St D (9.35)
ReD Pr 2
Note that in this case the Stanton number is defined in terms of the
mean velocity and bulk temperature, as is the wall shear stress:
o 12 C f um2 22
9.6.2 Adapting Flat-Plate Analogies to Pipe Flow
We saw that Reynold’s analogy is identical for flat plate and pipe flows.
We know that the velocity profiles near the wall are similar.
Can we adapt other flat-plate analogies to pipe flow?
Von Kármán Analogy for Pipe Flow
Take original von Kármán analogy, replace V∞ and T ∞ with
V uCL and T TCL
These substitutions also affect the friction factor, which translates to:
o
Cf 1
2 u 2
CL
Following the development exactly as before, the result is almost identical:
qo Cf / 2
(9.36)
uCL c p (Ts TCL ) Cf 5 Pr 1
1 5 ( Pr 1) ln
2 6
Problem: the LHS and the friction factor are expressed in terms of
centerline variables instead of the more common and convenient mean
quantities um and Tm. Correct this as follows: 23
qo um (Ts Tm ) C
/ 2 um / uCL
2
f
um c p (Ts Tm ) uCL (Ts TCL ) umCf 5 Pr 1
1 5 ( Pr 1) ln
uCL2 6
Now, Cf is again defined in terms of the mean velocity, C f o / 12 um2
and the terms qo / um c p (Ts Tm ) are collectively the Stanton number
for pipe flow.
Simplifying,
Ts Tm C
/ 2 u m / uCL
f
St D (9.37)
Ts TCL um C f 5 Pr 1
1 5 ( Pr 1) ln
uCL 2 6
This is the von Kármán Analogy for pipe flow.
Estimates for Mean Temperature and Velocity
We can develop estimates for the ratios um / uCL and Ts Tm / Ts TCL
using the definition of mean temperature, equation (9.9).
Estimate um and Tm using the 1/7th Law profiles, which for a circular
pipe are: 24
1/7
u y
(9.20)
uCL ro
and, similar to (8.111) for a flat plate,
1/7
T Ts y
(9.38)
TCL Ts ro
Substituting these models into (9.8) and (9.9), we can show that:
um
0.817 (9.39)
uCL
Tm Ts
0.833 (9.40)
TCL Ts
9.6.3 Other Analogy-Based Correlations
A simple correlation for turbulent flow in a duct is based on the
Colburn analogy.
Beginning with the analogy, equation (8.96), and using equation (9.27)
for the friction factor, we obtain
25
St D 0.023 ReD1/5 Pr 2/ 3
or NuD 0.023 ReD4/5 Pr 1/ 3 (9.41)
One of the most popular correlations is the Dittus-Boelter correlation,
which is an empirical correlation based on the Colburn analogy:
NuD 0.023 ReD4/5 Pr n (9.42)
o where n = 0.4 for heating (Ts > Tm) and n = 0.3 for cooling.
Although still popular, the Colburn analogy and its derivative, the
Dittus-Boelter correlation have been challenged in recent years.
Models such as those by Petukhov and Gnielinski correlation (see
Section 9.8) are preferred for their improved accuracy and range
of applicability.
Other analogies have been developed specifically for pipe flows, instead
of adapting existing flat-plate models. Examples
o Reichardt [16]
o Boelter, Martinelli, and Jonassen [17]
o Churchill and Zajic [18] in 2002 (which the authors claim is to
date the most accurate model for the internal flow.)
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9.7 Algebraic Method Using Universal Temperature Profile
As we did for flow over a flat plate, we can use the universal
temperature and velocity profiles to estimate the heat transfer in a
circular duct.
Begin again with the definition of the Nusselt number, which for flow
in a duct can be expressed as
hD qoD
NuD (9.43)
k (Ts Tm )k
To later invoke the universal temperature profile, we use the definition
of T+, equation 8.102, to define the mean temperature as
c p u* c p um C f / 2
T (Ts Tm ) (Ts Tm ) (9.44)
m
qo qo
Recall that for duct flow, the friction velocity u* is defined in terms of
the mean velocity. Substituting this expression into (9.43) for qo
and invoking the definitions of the Reynolds and Prandtl numbers,
ReD Pr C f / 2
Nu D
(9.45)
Tm
27
Several ways to proceed with the analysis. One approach is to evaluate
Tm+ using a dimensionless version of the mean temperature expression
(9.33): ro
2
um ro
Tm 2 T u ( ro y )dy
0
(9.46)
28
We can now use the universal temperature profile, equation (8.118), to
evaluate TCL+:
Prt
TCL ln yCL 13 Pr 2/3 7 (9.48)
Now, just like in our analysis for flat plate flow, we can substitute the
Law of the Wall velocity profile (8.59) for ln yCL+:
1
uCL ln yCL B (9.49)
Substituting these into the Nusselt number relation,
ReD Pr C f / 2 (Ts TCL )
NuD (9.50)
Prt ( uCL B ) 13 Pr 7 (Ts Tm )
2/ 3
We need expressions for uCL and (Ts TCL ) / (Ts Tm ). For the
centerline velocity, we can use the definition of u+ for pipe flow:
uCL uCL 2
uCL * (9.51)
u um Cf
29
It appears that, if we are to complete the analysis, we will need to
evaluate the mean velocity and temperature after all. To avoid the
complexity of the logarithmic velocity and temperature profiles, we could
estimate these quantities using the much simpler 1/7th Law profiles,
which we saw in the last section yields
um
0.817 (9.39)
uCL
Tm Ts
0.833 (9.40)
TCL Ts
Finally, using the definition of Stanton number, St D NuD / ( ReD Pr ) ,
selecting Prt = 0.9 and B = 5.0, we can rearrange (9.50) obtain
Cf / 2
St D
0.92 10.8 Pr 0.89 C f / 2
2/3
(9.52)
33