FEEG2003 Fluid Mechanics

Laboratory Experiment 1: Boundary layer flow

Objective

To measure velocity distributions in laminar and turbulent boundary layers, to appreciate

their differences, and to assess the accuracy of analytical approximations.

Background

In viscous flows the fluid immediately adjacent to a solid surface moves at the same velocity
as the surface. This ‘no-slip’ condition means that there is a region close to stationary surface
where the flow velocity adjusts from zero at the surface to the external flow velocity Ue and
this region is known as the boundary layer. Boundary layers are found in two basic forms
depending on Reynolds number (Re) and the flow environment (surface roughness,
background turbulence, etc.). For low Re and low background disturbances, the flow over
smooth surfaces is smooth and steady; we refer to such flow as laminar. At higher Re, or in
flow over rough surfaces or with background turbulences, the flow usually consists of unsteady
eddying motions and this flow condition is called turbulent. For steady flow over a flat smooth
plate, the parameter which determines the flow characteristics is the Reynolds number, Rex=Ue
x/, here x is the distance from the leading edge and  is the kinematic viscosity coefficient of
the fluid.

Figure 1: General characteristics of the boundary layer over a flat plate.

Approximate forms for the variation of the average velocity within the boundary layers with
zero free-stream pressure gradient are:

2 2 Laminar flow (1)

/
Turbulent flow (2)

where  is the boundary layer thickness. Equation (1) is known as Polhausen’s relation and
equation (2) is a power-law form, whose exponent n varies from 5 to 9 depending on Re.

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A better way to define a characteristic length of the boundary layer is the displacement and
momentum thickness (check the lecture notes before writing the report for more details).

The displacement thickness δ* is defined as:

𝛿∗ 1 𝑑𝑦 (3)

The momentum thickness 𝜃 is defined as,

𝜃 1 𝑑𝑦 (4)

Note that in the above integral, the units of displacement/momentum thickness are the units of
dy. So, if you measure the distance in mm, then by computing this integral, you should get
displacement and momentum thicknesses in mm. The displacement thickness can be seen as
the thickness required to compensate for the loss of the mass flow due to the growing boundary
layer. The momentum thickness is the thickness required to account for the loss of momentum
flux due to the growing boundary layer.
The following table (Table 1) has theoretical values for boundary layer thickness, displacement
thickness and momentum thickness for laminar (using a Blasius profile) and two different types
of turbulent profiles.
Table 1: Theoretical equations for the boundary layer momentum and displacement
thicknesses for different flow types. Here 𝑥 is the distance from the leading edge of the flat
plate and 𝑅𝑒 is the Reynolds number based on the distance from the leading edge.

Experimental method and formulae

To study boundary layers with zero free-stream pressure gradient (i.e. Ue independent of x) we
consider the flow along a flat plate aligned with the oncoming flow. As shown in Figure 2,
flow is measured using a small Pitot tube, which may be traversed across the boundary layer.
The multi-tube manometer is used to determine the total pressure (Pt) from the Pitot tube and
the static pressure (Ps) from a reference point in the wind tunnel through a connecting tube.
These pressure values can be read in terms of height of water column (hw), in mm, which can
be converted to a relative pressure value using 𝑃 𝜌 𝑔ℎ or using a conversion relationship
which is: 1 mm of water = 9.80665 N/m2.

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 Figure 2: The test section and measurement configuration.

With the pressure values (Pt) determined, the speed of the flow (U) in the boundary layer can
be calculated as:
𝑃 𝑃 𝜌𝑈 (5)
To determine the free stream speed (Ue), the pressure value in the free stream (Pte) can be used:
𝑃 𝑃 𝜌𝑈 (6)
Equations (4) and (5) can be combined to calculate the speed ratio in the boundary layer:

(7)

For the data processing, the values of the fluid density () and the kinematic viscosity
coefficient ( = /, here  is the dynamic viscosity coefficient) are needed.
For air, the density can be calculated using the perfect gas law:
𝑃 𝜌𝑅𝑇, (8)
where P is the Barometric Pressure in Nm-2 (if not available, use 1.013x105 Nm-2), T is the
temperature in kelvin (T[K]=T[C]+273.15) and the constant R = 287.05 J kg-1K-1.
The dynamic viscosity coefficient () of air at T[K] can be calculated using Sutherland’s law:

(9)

And for air, the following values of the parameters can be used:
μ0 = 1.7894×10-5 kg m-1s-1, T0 = 273.11K and S = 110.56K, (10)

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The experiment procedure
Follow the instructions given here and if in doubt ask the demonstrator. You can write down
your measurements on this lab sheet or directly record the data on your computer with any data
processing software.
1. Record the temperature and, if available, atmospheric pressure in the laboratory;
2. Adjust the inclination of the multi-tube manometer and note the conversion factor;
3. Adjust the initial reading of the Micrometre to 10.00 mm, or 11.00mm if it is too tight;
4. Adjust the location of the plate such that the distance from the leading edge of the plate
to the Pitot probe is your first targeted streamwise distance 𝑥.
5. Loosen the holding screw and move the Pitot probe so that its tip just touches the plate
surface;
6. Push the start button on the tunnel with the valve set on ½ and then slowly turn the
valve to the position required for your target velocity (as per your test matrix).
7. With the Pitot probe just touching the plate surface, read from the multi-tube manometer
the water column heights hPt and hPs. Since the thickness of the probe tip is 1.00mm,
this first reading should be recorded for y = 0.50 mm;
8. Traverse the probe from the plate surface across the boundary layer according to the
target 𝑦 values of your test matrix and record the respective values of hPt and hPs; Please
ensure that you have enough points within the boundary layer to have a smooth plot
and that you end the traverse only when you are sure you have passed the point where
the free-stream velocity is reached.
9. Repeat steps 3 to 8 for test two.
10. Stop the tunnel after recording all the data in test two.

Data Reduction
1. Convert the pressure to velocity values in ms-1. Note the free stream velocity, Ue.
2. Plot U against y for each case and estimate the boundary layer thickness  as the y
location where the velocity is 99% of the free stream value Ue. Check that the velocity
is tending clearly to zero at y=0. [5 marks]
3. Normalise U and y as U/Ue and y respectively. Plot one graph comparing your results
for laminar flow with equation (1) and another graph comparing your results for
turbulent flow to equation (2), taking n=5. [10 marks]
4. Calculate the displacement thickness δ* and momentum thickness 𝜃 of the measured
laminar and turbulent flow profiles by
a. Performing a numerical integration of your measured data [20 marks], and
b. Performing the analytical integration of the velocity profiles (Eqs. (1)-(2)) as
per the definition of δ* and 𝜃 of Eqs. (3)-(4) with appropriate limits. [20 marks]
5. Compare the measured values of δ* fibalk with the theoretical values for laminar and
turbulent boundary layers estimated from Table 1. [5 marks]
The momentum thickness of a turbulent boundary layer (n=5) on a flat plate at zero pressure
gradient can be estimated as per Table 1 with
.
𝜃 𝑥 / (11)

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However, Eq. (11) is only valid if the turbulent boundary layer starts right at the leading edge
(LE) of the plate (𝑥 0). However, normally a laminar boundary layer develops from the LE
and it becomes turbulent further downstream via a transition process. This is shown in Figure
3 below, in which 𝑥 is the transition point and 𝑥 is defined as the ‘virtual origin’ of the
turbulent boundary layer. Eq. (11) should therefore be modified as
.
𝜃 𝑥 / (12)

6. Determine the virtual origin 𝑥 in your experiment based on Eq. (12) and the
momentum thickness obtained from the measured data of the turbulent boundary layer.
[20 marks]
7. Find the location of the transition point 𝑥 in the experimental case above by assuming
that the momentum thickness of the laminar boundary layer 𝜃 and the turbulent
boundary layer 𝜃 is matched at the transition point. Hint: you might need to solve
the final equation numerically. [20 marks]

Figure 3: Definition of transition point and virtual origin on a flat plate boundary layer.

Discussion of the results

1. Suitability of YOUR experimental design used for the test matrix in comparison to the
measured data.
2. Suitability of equations (1) and (2) for estimating the velocity profiles for the laminar
and turbulent boundary layers respectively.
3. The extent to which your data agrees with the theoretical equations for the boundary
layer thickness, displacement thickness and momentum thickness in Table 1.
4. Qualitative differences between the two flow cases and the effects of changes in the
Reynolds number (including the effects on profile shapes), background flow
turbulence, and roughness of the flat plate.
5. Possible sources of error in experiment and data reduction.

Laboratory report

The lab is assessed (80%) with an individual laboratory report. The report must have the
structure indicated below, contain presentable figures, clear explanations, and an appropriate
discussion of the results supported by references.

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  Abstract (5%): summarise the topic of your investigation and the main findings.
 Objectives (5%): provide a short introduction of the topic and objectives of the lab.
 Results (45%): show all the figures and detailed analytical derivations requested in the
section ‘Data reduction’ of this Lab Sheet.
 Discussion (45%): demonstrate your understanding of the subject with a clear
discussion of the results backed with references to books or scientific papers when
appropriate.
The report should not be more than 6 A4 pages with Calibri font size 11 pt. Leave at least 2 cm
margins on all sides. The limit includes references and excludes the cover page. For questions
6. and 7. of data reduction you can scan and attached the formulation if preferred.

Experimental data record sheet

Test date = _____________________________

Air temperature = _______________________________
Barometric pressure = ____________________________
Inclination of the multi-tube manometer = ____________
Conversion factor = ______________________________
Probe tip thickness = _1.00 mm_____________________________

 Test one
Probe distance from the leading edge = _______________
Air valve position at _______________

Table 2: data recording for test one.

Micrometre reading [mm] y [mm] hPt [mm H2O] hPs [mm H2O]

The free stream water height hPte = _______________________________ (PTO)

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 Test two
Probe distance from the leading edge = _______________
Air valve position at _______________

Table 3: data recording for test two.

Micrometre reading [mm] y [mm] hPt [mm H2O] hPs [mm H2O]
0.50

The free stream water height hPte = _______________________________

 Test three (optional)

Probe distance from the leading edge = _______________
Air valve position at _______________

Table 4: data recording for test three.

Micrometre reading [mm] y [mm] hPt [mm H2O] hPs [mm H2O]
0.50

The free stream water height hPte = _______________________________

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 Test four (optional)
Probe distance from the leading edge = _______________
Air valve position at _______________

Table 5: data recording for test four.

Micrometre reading [mm] y [mm] hPt [mm H2O] hPs [mm H2O]
0.50

The free stream water height hPte = _______________________________