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Substructures
INTRODUCTION
• Sub-structure or Foundation is the lower portion of the
building, usually located below the ground level, which
transmits the loads of the super-structure to the supporting
soil.
• A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is
in direct contact with the ground to which the loads are
transmitted.
• The substructure of a structure is defined as the
structural work below ground level used to support the
structure above.
• Foundations, basement, subfloor are some components of
this area.
INTRODUCTION
• It is below ground level.
Foundation is part
of substructure.
• Substructure is the lower
portion of the building which
transmits the dead load, live
loads and other loads to the
underneath sub soil.
• The superstructure of
a building is the part that is
entirely above its foundation
or basement.
INTRODUCTION
• The substructure includes:
o Foundations up to and including the damp proof course.
o Lowest floor assembly below the underside of
the screed or the lowest floor finish.
o Basement excavation.
o Basement retaining walls up to and including the damp
proof course.
• Much broader definitions consider the substructure to include
all works below ground level.
TYPES OF SUB-STRUCTURES
There are three additional choices for substructures, besides
basement. They are:
• Crawlspace: An unfinished accessible space below the first
floor, generally less than full-story height.
• Wood Stilts (or piers): Long wooden posts driven into the
ground which are designed to support and elevate the
building above the ground.
• Concrete/Steel Stilts: Long concrete or steel posts driven
into the ground which are designed to support and elevate
the building above the ground.
INTRODUCTION
• Foundation is the part of the structure which serves
exclusively to transmit loads from the structure on to the
sub-soil.
• If the structure of soil lying close to ground surface
possess adequate power to take loads –Foundations are
laid at shallow depth
• If the upper strata is too weak or loads need to be carried
to deeper depths –Piles, piers etc
• Two foundations- Shallow and deep
FOUNDATION DESIGN REQUIREMENTS
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied
loads, moments, forces and induced reactions without
exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as
possible and it should be within the tolerable limits. It is well
known that differential settlement of supports causes
additional moments in statically indeterminate structures.
Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered
as more important than maintaining uniform overall
settlement of the structure.
3. The foundation structure should provide adequate safety for
maintaining the stability of structure due to either
overturning and/or sliding.
TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS.
1) Shallow Foundations. 2) Deep Foundation
a) Pedestal Footings. a) Pile Foundation.
b) Isolated Footings.
c) Combined Footings.
d) Strap Footings.
e) Strip Foundation or
wall footings.
f) Raft or mat
foundation.
 Shallow foundation Deep foundation

The ratio of depth of embedment D/B>15 or L/D >15

to width of foundation does not
exceed 1
Load is transferred to the soil which Partly by skin friction and partly by
lies immediately below the point load
foundation.
They are constructed in open Installed in the interior of earth
excavation in visible manner unaided by visible inspection
Extent of soil disturbance is limited Larger zone of soil is affected
to very small zone extending over entire length
Location and depth of Foundation
• The following considerations are necessary for deciding the
location and depth of foundation
• As per IS:1904-1986, minimum depth of foundation shall be
0.50m.
• Foundation shall be placed below the zone of -
o The frost heave
o Excessive volume change due to moisture variation,Top
soil or organic material
o Peat and Muck
o Unconsolidated material such as waste dump
• Foundations adjacent to flowing water (flood water, rivers,
etc.) shall be protected against scouring. The following steps
to be taken for design in such conditions
• Determine foundation type
• Estimate probable depth of scour, effects, etc.
• Estimate cost of foundation for normal and various scour
conditions
• Determine the scour versus risk, and revise the design
accordingly
A) RAFT or MAT FOUNDATION.
• These are special cases of combined footing where all the
columns of the building are having a common foundation.
• They are a large concrete slab which can support a number
of columns and walls.
• The slab is spread out under the entire building or at least a
large part of it which lowers the contact pressure compared
to the traditionally used strip or trench footings.
• Normally, for buildings with heavy loads or when the soil
condition is poor, raft foundations are very useful.
 RAFT
FOUNDATION.

TYPES OF RAFT FOUNDATIONS.

A) RAFT or MAT FOUNDATION.
• They help to control differential settlement and transfer the
loads not exceeding the bearing capacity of the soil due to
integral action of the raft foundation.
• This is a threshold situation for shallow footing beyond
which deep foundations have to be adopted.
• Normally, for buildings with heavy loads or when the soil
condition is poor, raft foundations are very useful.
B) PILE FOUNDATION
• Piles are small diameter columns which are driven or cast
into the ground by suitable means.
• Precast piles are driven and cast-in-situ are cast.
• These piles support the structure by the skin friction
between the pile surface and the surrounding soil and end
bearing force, if such resistance is available to provide the
bearing force.
• Accordingly, they are designated as frictional and end
bearing piles. They are normally provided in a group with a
pile cap at the top through which the loads of the
superstructure are transferred to the piles.
B) PILE FOUNDATION
Piles are recommended in places where
• poor condition of soil near to the surface
• the bearing capacity of soil is very less and
• foundation needs to support large loads.
• Piles are very useful in marshy land where other types of
foundation are impossible to construct.
• The length of the pile which is driven into the ground
depends on the availability of hard soil/rock or the actual
load test.
B) PILE FOUNDATION
• Another advantage of the pile foundations is that they can
resist uplift also in the same manner as they take the
compression forces just by the skin friction in the opposite
direction.
• However, driving of pile is not an easy job and needs
equipment and specially trained persons or agencies.
• Moreover, one has to select pile foundation in such a
situation where the adjacent buildings are not likely to be
damaged due to the driving of piles.
• The choice of driven or bored piles, in this regard, is critical.
TYPES OF UNDER GROUND STRUCTURES

Various structures have

developed for
underground living.
A) Caves (Natural) have
been used for
millennia as shelter.
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
B) Caves Constructed/Dugouts
• They are a common structure
for underground living.
• Although the tunnelling
techniques required to make
them have been well
developed by
the mining industry, they can
be considerably more costly
and dangerous to make than
some of the alternatives. Sassi di Matera in Italy, declared
by UNESCO a World Heritage Site
 Town of Coober Pedy in Australia, built underground to
avoid the blistering heat

Underground motel, Coober Pedy

Underground jewellery shop in Coober Pedy

Traditional Yaodong (Cave houses) in Shanxi, China.
They are generally carved out of a hillside or excavated
horizontally from a central "sunken courtyard“. In 2006,
an estimated 40 million people in northern China lived
in yaodongs.
Hidden dwellings in the cliffsides of Nôk and
Mamproug, North Togo, Africa used as shelter and
refuge structures by local Moba tribes to evade 18th-
century slave traders. added to the UNESCO World
Heritage Tentative List on December 12, 2000 in the
Cultural category.
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURES
C) Earth berm
• Structures are essentially traditional
homes that have then been
buried, typically leaving at least one
wall exposed for lighting and
ventilation.
• However, because they are to be
buried, the structures must be made
of materials capable of surviving the
increased weight and moisture of
being underground.
D) Culvert structures
• They have a very simple approach.
Large precast concrete pipes and boxes a
few metres across are assembled into the
desired arrangement of rooms and
hallways.
• They are arranged onsite, either atop the
existing ground or below grade in
excavated trenches, then buried.
• This approach can also be referred to as Cut and Cover.
E) Urban Tunnels
• A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding
soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly
at each end.
• A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail /
metro traffic, or for a canal.
• The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel.
• Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or
for hydroelectric stations or are sewers.
• Utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical
power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings
for convenient passage of people and equipment.
E) Urban Tunnels
• Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians
for smuggling of weapons, contraband, or people.
• Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossings, are built to allow wildlife
to cross human-made barriers safely.
• Tunnels can be connected together in tunnel networks.
E) Types of Urban Underground
Structures

Storm Drains, London, UK

‘Underground School' in
the Underground City
Derinkuyu, Turkey.
Underground Mall, Japan