Functions of Bones

 Support of the body

 Protection of soft organs
 Movement due to attached skeletal
muscles
 Storage of minerals and fats
 Blood cell formation
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 The Skeletal System
 Parts of the skeletal system
 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to
muscle)
 Divided into two divisions
 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton – limbs and girdle
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.1
 Bones of the Human Body
 The skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue
 Compact bone
 Homogeneous
 Spongy bone
 Small needle-like
pieces of bone
Figure 5.2b

 Many open spaces

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 Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone

 Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of
compact bone
 Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of
spongy bone
Figure 5.2a

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.6
 Structures of a Long Bone
 Periosteum
 Outside covering of
the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers
 Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
 Arteries
 Supply bone cells Figure 5.2c
with nutrients
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.7
 Structures of a Long Bone

 Articular cartilage
 Covers the
external surface of
the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline
cartilage
 Decreases friction
at joint surfaces Figure 5.2a

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.8a
 Structures of a Long Bone

 Medullary cavity
 Cavity of the shaft
 Contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
 Contains red marrow
(for blood cell
formation) in infants Figure 5.2a

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.8b
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Osteon (Haversian System)
 A unit of bone
 Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide
 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

Figure 5.3

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 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Lacunae
 Cavities containing
bone cells
(osteocytes)
 Arranged in
concentric rings
 Lamellae
 Rings around the
central canal
 Sites of lacunae Figure 5.3

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

 Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the
central canal to
lacunae
 Form a transport
system
Figure 5.3

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 Classification of Bones based on
the Shape

Figure 5.1

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 Classification of Bones

 Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft (batang) with heads at both
ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus, clavicule
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.4a
 Classification of Bones

 Short bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.4b
 Classification of Bones

 Flat bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.5a
 Classification of Bones

 Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
 Example: Vertebrae, lower jaw
(mandibulae) and hip

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.5b
• Long/Pipe Bones- metacarples,
metatarsals, phelangies, humerus,
ulna, radius, tibia, fibula, clavicula,
femur
• Short Bones- carpals, tarsals,
vertebrae
• Flat Bones- rib, scapula, skull, sternum
• Sesamoid- patella
 The Axial Skeleton

 Forms the longitudinal part of the body

 Divided into three parts
 Skull
 Vertebral Column
 Rib Cage

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 The Skull

Figure 5.7

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 Bones of the Skull

Figure 5.11

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 5.22
The Vertebral Column
Cervical Vertebrae
(7)
Thoracic Vertebrae
(12)
Lumbar Vertberae (5)
Sacrum
Coccyx
The Thoracic Cage

Sternum
True Ribs (7)
False Ribs (3)
Floating Ribs (2)
Bones of the Pectoral Girdle
The Upper Limb
(Forelimb)

Humerus
Ulna
Radius
Carpals
Metacarpals
Phalanges
Pelvis
The Lower Limb
(Legs)

Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
JOINTS
 Joints Classification
Joints are classified by:

Movement Tissue type

• Immovable • Fibrous
• Slightly Movable • Cartilaginous
• Freely movable • Synovial
 Joints
A joint, or articulation, is the place where
two bones come together.

• Fibrous- Immovable:connect bones, no

movement. (skull and pelvis).
• Cartilaginous- slightly movable, bones are
attached by cartilage, a little movement
(spine or ribs).
• Synovial- freely movable, much more
movement than cartilaginous joints. Cavities
between bones are filled with synovial fluid.
This fluid helps lubricate and protect the
bones.
Immovable Joints
(synarthrosis)

suture

pubis symphisis
Slightly Movable Joint (ampharthrosis)
(diarthrosis)- freely moveable

pelvis

ligaments

femur
 joint
capsule pelvis

hyaline
cartilage synovial
cavity
femur
 The Synovial Joint

Figure 5.28

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 Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape

Figure 5.29a–c

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape

Figure 5.29d–f

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Types of Joints
Hinge- A hinge joint allows extension and
retraction of an appendage. (Elbow, Knee)
Ball and Socket A ball and socket joint
allows for radial movement in almost
any direction. They are found in the hips
and shoulders. (Hip, Shoulder)
Gliding- In a gliding or plane joint bones
slide past each other. Mid-carpal and mid-
tarsal joints are gliding joints. (Hands,
Feet)
Saddle- This type of joint occurs when the
touching surfaces of two bones have both
concave and convex regions with the
shapes of the two bones complementing
one other and allowing a wide range of
movement. (Thumb)
 Type of joints ( synovial)
Plane/Gliding, Hinge, Ball & Socket, Saddle, Pivot,
Ellipsoid/Condyloid
 The ball & socket joints
Joints which enable movement in all
direction. Loose joints often happen in
these types of joints.
Examples :
~between the humerus and the
shoulder girdle ~between the femur
and the pelvic girdle.
One end knobbed, while the other one
has a cup like shape.

Buku Bio hal

 Condyloid joint
Also called ellipsoidal is an ovoid
articular surface, or condyle that is
received into an elliptical cavity.
This permits movement in two
planes, allowing flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction, and
circumduction.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
 Gliding joint

Also known as a plane joint or planar joint

It’s a common type of synovial joint
formed between bones that meet at flat
or nearly flat articular surfaces. Gliding
joints allow the bones to glide past one
another in any direction along the plane of
the joint – up and down, left and right,
and diagonally.
 Hinge joint
A hinge joint is a bone joint in which the articular
surfaces are molded to each other in such a
manner as to permit motion only in one plane.
According to one classification system they are
said to be uniaxial having one degree of freedom.
The direction which the distal bone takes in this
motion is seldom in the same plane as that of the
axis of the proximal bone; there is usually a
certain amount of deviation from the straight line
during flexion.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
 Pivot joints
A pivot joint is a type of synovial joint. In
pivot joints, the axis of a convex
articular surface is parallel with the
longitudinal axis of the bone.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P
 Saddle joints

Forms between bones whose

articulating surfaces have
both concave and convex
region
 Joint Movement
• Flexion : Bending parts of the joint so that the
angle between them decrease and the parts come
closer together e.g : bending lower limb at knee
• Extension : Straightening parts at the joint so that
the angle between them increase and the parts
move farther apart e.g : straightening parts of the
joint so that the angle between them increase and
the parts move farther apart e.g : straightening the
lower limb at me
• Hyperextension : Excess extension of the
parts at a joint beyond the anatomical
position e.g : bending the head back beyond
the upright position
Dorsiflexion : Bending the foot at the ankle
toward the shin e.g : bending the foot upward
Plantar Flexion : Bending the foot at the ankle
toward the sole e.g : bending the foot
downward
Abduction : moving a part away from the
midline e.g : lifting the upper limb horizontally
to form a right angle with the side of the body
Adduction : Moving a part toward the midline
e.g : Returning the upper limb from a
horizontal position to the side of the body
• Rotation : Moving a part around an axis
e.g : twisting the head from side to side
• Circumduction : Moving a part so that its
end follows a circular path e.g: mobbing
the finger in a circular motion without
moving the hand
• Supination : Turning the hand so that the
palm is upward or facing anteriorly (in
the anatomical position)
Pronation : Turning the hand so the palm is
downward or facing posteriorly (in the
anatomical position)
Eversion : Turning the foot so that sole faces
laterally
Inversion : Turning the foot so that the sole
faces medially
Protraction : Moving a part forward e.g :
thrusting the chin forward
Retraction : Moving a part backward e.g :
pulling the chin backward
Slideshare.net
• Rotation : Moving a part around an axis e.g :
twisting the head from side to side
• Circumduction : Moving a part so that its end
follows a circular path e.g: mobbing the finger
in a circular motion without moving the hand
• Supination : Turning the hand so that the palm
is upward or facing anteriorly (in the
anatomical position)
 Joints disorders

1. Arthritis - inflammation of a joint. It causes

pain, stiffness, and swelling. Over time, the joint
can become severely damaged.
2. Bursitis - inflammation of a fluid-filled sac that
cushions the joint
• Dislocations - injuries that force the
ends of the bones out of position
MUSCLE
 Types of Muscles-skeletal
• Skeletal Muscles-muscles
that move bones
• Attached to bones by
tendons
• Most numerous in the
body
• Look striped or striated
• Voluntary muscles
 Types of Muscles-Smooth Muscles

• Smooth muscles-
nonstriated
• Involuntary
• Move the internal organs
• Contract and relax slowly
• Example- small intestine
 Types of Muscles-Cardiac Muscle

• Cardiac muscle-found
only in the heart
• Involuntary
• Striations
• Contracts about 70
times a minute every
day of your life.
 Antagonistic Muscle Action
• Muscles are either contracted or relaxed
• When contracted the muscle exerts a
pulling force, causing it to shorten
• Since muscles can only pull (not push), they
work in pairs called antagonistic muscles
• The muscle that bends the joint is called
the flexor muscle
• The muscle that straightens the joint is
called the extensor muscle
 Elbow Joint
• The best known example of antagonistic
muscles are the bicep & triceps muscles
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 Muscle Structure

• A single muscle e.g. biceps

Bicep
contains approx 1000 Muscle
muscle fibres.
• These fibres run the whole
length of the muscle
• Muscle fibres are joined
together at the tendons
Diseases of the Skeletal System:

Osteoporosis- bone reabsorption

outpaces bone deposit; bones
become lighter and fracture easier
Factors:
• age, gender (more in women)
• estrogen and testosterone decrease
• insufficient exercise (or too much)
• diet poor in Ca++ and protein
• abnormal vitamin D receptors
• smoking
Diseases and Conditions
of the Skeletal System
Arthritis
 Osteoporosis
• Osteoporosis is a term that means
"porous bones." It is a skeletal disease
affecting women and men. Osteoporosis
is a condition in which bones have lost
minerals especially calciumﾑmaking them
weaker, more brittle, and susceptible to
fractures (broken bones). Any bone in the
body can be affected by osteoporosis, but
the most common places where fractures
occur are the back (spine), hips, and
wrists.
 Scoliosis
• Scoliosis is an abnormal curvature of the
spine. If your child has scoliosis, the view
from behind may reveal one or more
abnormal curves.Scoliosis runs in
families, but doctors often don't know the
cause. More girls than boys have severe
scoliosis. Adult scoliosis may be a
worsening of a condition that began in
childhood, but wasn't diagnosed or
treated. In other cases, scoliosis may
result from a degenerative joint condition
in the spine.
 Kyphosis
• With kyphosis, your spine may look normal
or you may develop a hump. Kyphosis can
occur as a result of developmental
problems; degenerative diseases, such as
arthritis of the spine; osteoporosis with
compression fractures of the vertebrae; or
trauma to the spine. It can affect children,
adolescents and adults.
 Lordosis
• A normal spine, when viewed from
behind appears straight. However, a
spine affected by lordosis shows
evidence of a curvature of the back
bones (vertebrae) in the lower back
area, giving the child a "swayback"
appearance.
 Rickets
• Rickets is the softening and weakening
of bones in children, usually because
of an extreme and prolonged vitamin D
deficiency.
• Some skeletal deformities caused by
rickets may need corrective surgery.