INTRODUCTION

•Hearing - one of man’s most important communication channel.

Noise: term used for any unwanted sound - definition of noise is
subjective - one man’s sound is another man’s noise.
•Urbanisation – rapid increase of noise sources – industry, traffic,
aircraft, radio, tv, music system etc.
•Low density of rural areas ensures greater distance between noise
source and listeners. High density towns have more potential noise
sources & distance between sources and listeners are much less.

The science of sound – acoustics - can be broadly divided into two

major areas:
1. The handling of unwanted sound - control of noise.
2. The handling of wanted sound - creating most favourable
conditions for listening to a sound we want to hear – room
acoustics.
It is difficult to control noise in tropical climate compared to moderate
climate:
a. A grater part of life in the tropics goes on out-of-doors, where noise
control not possible, as opposed to the predominantly indoor living of
moderate climates.
b. A conflict between thermal & aural requirements , especially in
warm-humid climates, where the building is of lightweight construction
with large openings – hence cannot effectively control noise
penetration.

In tropical climates :
•Design of buildings – strongly influenced by noise considerations.
•Noise control performance will depend on planning & basic design
decisions – rather than on constructional details.
 NATURE OF SOUND

•SOUND: sensation caused by a vibrating medium acting on the ear –

but the term is usually applied to the vibration itself.

•Source of sound – most often some vibrating solid body, e.g., a string or
sheet – may be generated by vibrations of a gaseous medium, e.g., air in
whistle or flute – or by vibrations of a liquid medium, e.g., water waves.

•Conveying medium:
Can be gas (air) or liquid
Can be solid body
•Wavelength or frequency (number of waves per unit time) determines
the pitch of sound.
Unit of frequency – Hertz (Hz) – one Hertz = one wave per second
Unit of wavelength – metre.
Some typical frequencies Hz
Bottom note of bass singer 100
Top note of soprano singer 1200
Range of grand piano 25 to 4200
Top note of piccolo flute 4600
•A bass is a type of male singing voice and possesses the lowest vocal range of all voice types.
•A soprano is a voice type with a vocal range from approximately middle C to "high A" in
choral music.
•Amplitude indicates the strength of sound - loudness of a sound
depends on the wave’s amplitude - this is why a stereo system has an
“amplifier”, a device that increases the amplitude of sound waves - the
louder a sound, the bigger the amplitude.

Loudness of sound is measured in decibel system, unit dB.

The decibel system is based on logarithms, which means for every

step up by one, the sound is actually ten times louder, e.g., a 15dB
sound is ten times louder than a 14dB sound.

1 decibel = 0.1 bel (the original unit for measuring sound ) - "bel"
was originally named after Alexander Graham Bell - because bel was
too high a value for day to day situations, the decibel became a
standard.
 Range (db) Description Example
This is the threshold of human hearing, up to the sound
0 - 30 Very Quiet
of a quiet whisper.
This is an average quiet house, with maybe the sound of
31 - 50 Quiet
a fridge running or someone moving around.
51 - 70 Normal Regular daily sounds like people talking.
This is the point where a sound becomes annoying or
71 - 90 Loud distracting. Vacuums or a noisy car on a busy street are
at these levels.
Most people will try to avoid being in areas this loud.
91 - 110 Very Loud
Prolonged exposure can cause permanent ear damage.
Even limited exposure to levels this high will cause
111 + Painful!!!
permanent hearing loss.

•Most concerts you have sound levels between 100 – 130 db.
•Lot’s of old rock stars have permanent hearing loss.
•Many modern day musicians wear ear protection of some sort while in
concert.
•Acceptable level of noise depends not only on objective , physical
factors but also on subjective, psychological factors.
•Whether a noise is disturbing or not depends on:
State of mind
Expectation of the listener

•In a sleeper train the monotonous noise (70 to 80 dB) will not be
disturbing - but in a quiet home even sound of a clock (20dB) may be
disturbing.

•As habits, expectations, attitudes depend on the socio-cultural

environment – noise tolerance of people may vary with the kind of
society they live in.
SOUND WAVES
•Wave motion can be described in terms of three quantities:
 = wavelrngth (m)
f = frequency (Hz) – number of vibrations per second
v = velocity (m/s)
v=fX
Therefore, if any two are known, the third one can be found.
•Value of v is constant for a conveying medium of a given density. As
density of air changes with temperature, the velocity of air also changes
with temperature. Gases v (m/s)
Hydrogen 1284
Air at temperature v (m/s)
Oxygen 316 liquid v (m/s)
-20 C 319.3
Carbon dioxide 259 Water 319.3
0 C 331.8
Sea-water 331.8
15 C 340
Solids v (m/s) Petrol 340
20 C 343.8
Steel 6100
30 C 349.6
Timber (pine) 5260
Brick 3650
POWER AND INTENSITY
•Power: output of a source is measured as rate of energy flow in
units of Watt (W)
•Intensity: in a carrying medium
Output of some sources Watt (e.g. in air) strength of sound is
Jet air liner 10 000 usually measured as intensity.
Large orchestra 0.01 •Density of energy flow rate through
Conversational speech 0.000 01 unit area (W/m²).

•When a point source emits sound uniformly in all directions in a free

field, it is spreading over the surface of a sphere of increasing radius.
•Same amount of energy is distributed over a larger and larger area –
hence intensity will decrease.
•At a distance of d metres from the source intensity will be:
I = W
4πd²

Where, I is in W/m², and W is the source power in watts

This is known as Inverse Square Law.
THE EAR’S SENSITYVITY
•Average person can hear frequencies from about 20 to 16 000 Hz – this
range is reduced with age and other subjective factors.
•Lowest intensity perceived as a sound is:
10ˉ¹² W/m² (1pW/ m² = 1 picowatt per metre square)
•This limit is taken as the standard threshold of audibility.
•The upper limit is threshold of pain, at 1 W/m² - vibrations above
this intensity would cause pain & could damage the ear.

Super sounds

Ultra sounds
Infra sounds
Intensity: W/m²

Audible Sounds

10 ˉ¹²

Below threshold sounds

20 16 000
Frequency: Hz
DECIBEL SCALE or SOUND LEVEL SCALE
•The ear has a built-in defence mechanism: its sensitivity decreases for
higher intensity sounds.
•Ear’s response is proportionate to the logarithm of intensity.
•The logarithm of the ratio of the measured sound intensity to the
intensity at the threshold of audibility gives the sound level scale or
decibel (dB) scale.
•The number of decibels (N):
N = 10 log l where, l = the measured intensity
l₀ l₀ = reference intensity
= 10ˉ¹² W/m²
Thus the intensity (W/m² )& sound level (dB)can be compared:

Sound source Intensity (W/m² ) Sound level (dB)

Jet aircraft at 1 km 0.01 100
Heavy traffic at 10 m from kerb 0.001 90
In office with 10 typewriters 0.000 001 60
NOISE IN FREE FIELD (NOISE REDUCTION)
•Inverse square law is applicable only to free field conditions - where
there is no obstruction/no solid objects from which sound could be
reflected.
•According to inverse square law – every doubling of distance will
reduce intensity to one quarter - every doubling of distance will reduce
sound level by 6 dB.
E.G.I
A sound at 1km from source l’ = 0.01 W/m²
at 2 km from source l’’ = 0.01 X ¼ W/m²
= 0.01 X 0.25 W/m²
= 0.0025 W/m²
N = 10 log 10ˉ² = 10 log 10¹ = 10 X 10 = 100 dB
10ˉ¹²
N = 10 log 25 X 10ˉ⁴ = 94 dB
10ˉ¹²
Therefore, reduction in sound level = 100 – 94 = 6 dB
NOISE REDUCTION
E.G. II
Speech at 2 m distance l’ = 10ˉ⁸ W/m²
at 4m distance l’’ = 10ˉ⁸ X 0.25 W/m²
= 25 X 10ˉ¹ W/m²
N = 10 log 10ˉ⁸ = 10 log 10⁴ = 10 X 4 = 40 dB
10ˉ¹²
N = 10 log 25 X 10ˉ¹⁰ = 34 dB
10ˉ¹²
Therefore, reduction in sound level = 40 – 34 = 6 dB

•Distance also affects sound by molecular absorption of energy in

carrying medium.
•For every 300 m distance in air this reduction is:
1 dB at 1000 Hz
40 dB at 9000 Hz
•Hence loud noises from a great distance (e.g. thunder) are heard at a
lower pitch than from nearby.
NOISE REDUCTION

•In moving air (wind) - increased sound downwind

- decreased sound upwind
WIND

INCREASED SOUND DECREASED SOUND

•Velocity of sound increases with air temperature

night - increased sound effect for a gr. Lev. observer
day – decreased sound effect for a gr. Lev. observer
NIGHT
DAY
15C 20 C

30 C 10 C

DECREASED SOUND AT GROUND LEVEL INCREASED SOUND AT GROUND LEVEL

ACOUSTIC SHADOW
•Screening /barrier in the path of sound can create an acoustic shadow
if the sound is of high frequency.

source

•At low frequencies diffraction

will occur at the edge of barrier
– thus the shadow effect will be
blurred.
source
NOISE IN ENCLOSED SPACES
• Sound incident on the surface of a solid body, e.g., wall is
-Partly reflected
-Partly absorbed (converted into heat)
-Partly transmitted to air on the opposite side

1 2
source
t

r
a

r = reflected If source I = 1
a = absorbed Then, a + r + t = 1
t = transmitted
NOISE IN ENCLOSED SPACES

1 2
source
t

r
a

•The term ‘absorption co-efficient’ is used to indicate all the sound that
is not reflected – it includes the part actually absorbed & that which is
transmitted.
•For room 1: ‘absorption coefficient ‘ = (a + t)
all that is not reflected = (1 – r)
•For room 2: ‘transmission coefficient’ = t
(r + a) is not transmitted
NOISE IN ENCLOSED SPACES

•When the sound is in enclosed space, reflection will occur from the
bounding surfaces.

•Sound is transmitted through air in the form of waves. These waves

move from their source in all directions at equal speed forming the
wave in the form of a sphere. These sound waves strike the walls, floor
& ceiling, & then reflect in various directions. The reflected sound waves
create spherical wave until they again strike the boundaries of the
enclosure. This process of reflection continues until all the energy of
vibration imparted to the original waves has been absorbed & the same
dies away.

•Absorption (A): product of absorption coefficient (a) & the area of a

given surface (s):
A=aXs
NOISE IN ENCLOSED SPACES
•In an enclosed space, even from a single source, there will be a
complex pattern of interrelated sound, which is usually referred to as
‘reverberant sound’.
•Thus, at any point in the space the total sound received will consist of
two parts:
a. The direct component
b. The reverberant component

Source Direct sound

TRANSMISSION
•Magnitude of reverberant component depends on the absorbent
qualities of room surfaces.

•More absorbent these surfaces are, lesser the reverberant component

will be.

•Rule of thumb - every doubling of the total absorption in the space

will reduce the reverberant sound level by 3 dB.

•If all surfaces in the space were perfect absorbers, conditions would be
the same as in a free field – zero reverberant component.

•When airborne sound impinges on a solid body, some of the energy of

vibrating air molecules will be transmitted to the solid material and
induce a vibration of its molecules. The vibration will spread in the body
as “structureborne sound” & may be re-emitted to air from the other
surface.
TRANSMISSION SOUND TRANSMISSION PATH
•Some possible
2 3 sound paths from
a source in one
1 room to a listener
5
in another room.
•1 - is airborne.
4 •2,3,4 - are
structure borne.
•Strictly speaking 5 is also structureborne – but for practical purposes
the transmission of a sound through a wall perpendicular to its plane is
considered as ‘airborne sound transmission’.
•Only way to reduce structureborne transmission - to prevent the
spread of vibrations by introducing structural discontinuity – a physical
separation.
•Structure borne sound can also be generated by mechanical means: by
a vibrating machine or by physical impact. In the latter case the result is
termed as ‘impact sound’.