Chapters 02 and 03 PT 1 - Atomic Theory and The Quantum Mechanical Model of An Atom S2020

Department of Chemistry
and Chemical Biology
Uses for Vinyl Acetate (%)
Chapter 3: Atomic Theory and the

Quantum Mechanical
Model of an Atom
Spring 2020 CHEM 1100 1
Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Dalton’s atomic theory can be summarized in five postulates.
1) Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called

atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that can
participate in a chemical change.
2) An element consists of only one type of atom, which has a
mass that is characteristic of the element and is the same
for all atoms of that element.
3) Atoms of one element differ in properties from atoms of all
other elements.
4) A compound consists of atoms of two or more elements
combined in a small, whole-number ratio. In a given
compound, the number of atoms of each of its elements
are always present in the same ratio.
5) Atoms are neither created nor destroyed during a
chemical change, but instead rearrange to yield a different
type(s) of matter.
Discovery of the Electron

• J.J. Thomson experimented with cathode ray tubes.
• Cathode ray tube:

– A sealed glass tube from which almost all the air had been
removed
– Contained two metal electrodes
• When a high voltage was applied across the electrodes, a

visible beam called a cathode ray appeared between them.
• Regardless of the metals used, this beam was always

deflected toward the positive charge and away from the
negative charge.
• Thompson was able to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio

of the cathode ray particles.
Thomson’s Results
• The cathode ray particles were much lighter than atoms.
• These particles are negatively charged.
• These particles are indistinguishable, regardless of the source material.
• This cathode ray particle is what we now call an electron—a negatively
charged, subatomic particle with a mass more than one thousand times
less than that of an atom.

Measuring the Charge of an Electron –

The Millikan Oil-Drop Experiment

Millikan’s Results
• The charge of an oil drop was always a multiple of a
specific charge, 1.6 × 10–19 C.
• Millikan concluded that 1.6 × 10–19 C was the charge

of a single electron.
• Thompson had previously shown that the charge to

mass ratio of an electron is 1.759 × 1011 C/kg.
Calculation of the mass of an electron
-19
æ 1 kg ö -31
Mass of electron = 1.602 ´ 10 Cç ÷ = 9.107 ´ 10 kg
è1.759 ´10 C ø
11

Rutherford Gold-Foil Experiment

• He aimed a beam of alpha particles (helium nuclei) at a very thin piece of
gold foil.
• a particles are positively charged.
• The scattering of these a particles was examined using a luminescent screen

that would glow briefly when impacted.

Rutherford’s Results
• The volume occupied by an atom must consist of a large amount
of empty space.
• A small, relatively heavy, positively charged body, the nucleus,

must be at the center of each atom.
• The nucleus contains most of the atom’s mass.
• Negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus.
• The proton, a positively charged, subatomic particle is located in

the nucleus.

The Beginnings of Quantum Mechanics

 Until the beginning of the 20th century it was believed that
all physical phenomena were deterministic.
 Work done at that time by many famous physicists
discovered that for sub-atomic particles, the present
condition does not determine the future condition.
 Albert Einstein, Neils Bohr, Louis de Broglie, Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg,
and Erwin Schrödinger
 Quantum mechanics forms the foundation of chemistry –
explaining the periodic table and the behavior of the elements in
chemical bonding – as well as providing the practical basis for
lasers, computers, and countless other applications.

Strange consequences of
Quantum Mechanics
Wave-Particle Duality
Theory of Superposition-Schrödinger’s Cat
Theory of Quantum Entanglement
Multiverse Theory

Schrödinger’s Cat

The Behavior of Electrons

• Electrons are incredibly small.
– a single speck of dust has more electrons than the number of people
who have ever lived on earth.
• Electron behavior determines much of the behavior of atoms
(Chemistry is all about the electrons!)
• Directly observing electrons in the atom is impossible, the
electron is so small that observing it changes its behavior.
– even shining a light on the electron would affect it

A Theory that Explains Electron Behavior

 The quantum-mechanical model explains the manner in which
electrons exist and behave in atoms.
 It helps us understand and predict the properties of atoms that
are directly related to the behavior of the electrons.
 why some elements are metals and others are nonmetals
 why some elements gain one electron when forming an anion, whereas
others gain two
 why some elements are very reactive while others are practically inert
 and other periodic patterns we see in the properties of the elements

Much of what was learned in the early 20th century

about electronic (and atomic) structure was determined
by experimentation involving the interaction
of light and matter.
We call the interaction of light and matter
SPECTROSCOPY

Interaction of Light with Matter

What is light?
The Nature of Light: Its Wave Nature
• Light is a form of electromagnetic radiation.
– composed of perpendicular oscillating waves, one for the electric
field and one for the magnetic field
• An electric field is a region where an
electrically charged particle experiences
a force.
• A magnetic field is a region where a
magnetized particle experiences a force.
• All electromagnetic waves move through space at the
same, constant speed.
– 3.00 × 108 m/s in a vacuum = the speed of light, c

16
Speed of Energy Transmission

Characterizing Waves
• The amplitude is the height of the wave.
– the distance from node to crest
• or node to trough
– The amplitude is a measure of how intense the light is – the larger
the amplitude, the brighter the light.
• The wavelength (l) is a measure of the distance covered
by the wave.
– the distance from one crest to the next
• or the distance from one trough to the next, or the distance
between alternate nodes

Wave Characteristics

19
Characterizing Waves
• The frequency (n) is the number of waves that pass a point in a
given period of time.
– the number of waves = number of cycles
– units are hertz (Hz) or cycles/s = s−1
• 1 Hz = 1 s−1
• The total energy is proportional to the amplitude of the waves
and the frequency.
– the larger the amplitude, the more force it has
– the more frequently the waves strike, the more total force there is

The Relationship Between Wavelength

and Frequency
• For waves traveling at the same speed, the shorter the
wavelength, the more frequently they pass.
• This means that the wavelength and frequency of
electromagnetic waves are inversely proportional.
– because the speed of light is constant, if we know wavelength we can
find the frequency, and vice versa

21
Example 1: What is the wavelength of red light with a

frequency of 4.62 × 1014 s−1 ?
Given: n = 4.62 × 1014 s−1
Find: l, (nm)
Conceptual Plan: n (s−1) l (m) l (nm)

Relationships:
l × n = c, 1 nm = 10−9 m
Solve:
Check: The unit is correct and the wavelength is appropriate for

red light.

22
Practice: What is the wavelength of a radio signal with a

frequency of 100.7 MHz?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:
Solve:
Check:

23
Color
 The color of light is determined by
its wavelength.
 or frequency
 White light is a mixture of all the
colors of visible light.
 a spectrum
 RedOrangeYellowGreenBlueViolet
 When an object absorbs some of
the wavelengths of white light and
reflects others, it appears colored.
 The observed color is predominantly
the colors reflected.

24
Amplitude & Wavelength

25
Frequency and Amplitude

The Electromagnetic Spectrum

• Visible light comprises only a small fraction of all the
wavelengths of light – called the electromagnetic spectrum.
• Shorter wavelength (high-frequency) light has higher energy.
– Radiowave light has the lowest energy.
– Gamma ray light has the highest energy.
• High-energy electromagnetic radiation can potentially damage
biological molecules.
– ionizing radiation
c
E n 
l

27
Types of Electromagnetic Radiation

• Electromagnetic waves are classified by their
wavelength. low frequency and
• Radiowaves = l > 0.01 m energy
• Microwaves = 10−4 < l < 10−2 m
• Infrared (IR)
o far = 10−5 < l < 10−4 m
o middle = 2 × 10−6 < l < 10−5 m
o near = 8 × 10−7< l < 2 × 10−6 m
• Visible = 4 × 10−7 < l < 8 × 10−7 m
o ROYGBIV
• Ultraviolet (UV)
o near = 2 × 10−7 < l < 4 × 10−7 m
o far = 1 × 10−8 < l < 2 × 10−7 m
high frequency and
• X-rays = 10−10 < l < 10−8m energy
• Gamma rays = l < 10−10 m

28
Electromagnetic Spectrum

29
Figure 3.3
Portions of the electromagnetic spectrum are shown in order of decreasing frequency and increasing wavelength.
(credit “Cosmic ray": modification of work by NASA; credit “PET scan": modification of work by the National
Institute of Health; credit “X-ray": modification of work by Dr. Jochen Lengerke; credit “Dental curing": modification
of work by the Department of the Navy; credit “Night vision": modification of work by the Department of the Army;
credit “Remote": modification of work by Emilian Robert Vicol; credit “Cell phone": modification of work by Brett
Jordan; credit “Microwave oven": modification of work by Billy Mabray; credit “Ultrasound": modification of work by
Jane Whitney; credit “AM radio": modification of work by Dave Clausen)
Continuous Spectrum

31
Thermal Imaging using Infrared Light

32
Sunburns Caused by High-Energy

UV Radiation

33
Using High-Energy Radiation to Kill

Cancer Cells

Interference
• The interaction between waves is called interference.
• When waves interact so that they add to make a larger wave it
is called constructive interference.
– waves are in-phase
• When waves interact so they cancel each other it is called
destructive interference.
– waves are out-of-phase

Interference

36
Diffraction
• When traveling waves encounter an obstacle or opening in a
barrier that is about the same size as the wavelength, they bend
around it – this is called diffraction.
– Traveling particles do not diffract.
• The diffraction of light through two slits separated by a distance
comparable to the wavelength results in an interference
pattern of the diffracted waves.
• An interference pattern is a characteristic of all light waves.

Two - Slit Interference

Diffraction

Two - Slit Interference
slit distance
frequency
Max Planck
(1858 – 1947)
• Planck proposed that the light energy was delivered to the

atoms in packets, called quanta or photons.
• The energy of a photon of light is directly proportional to its
frequency.
– inversely proportional to its wavelength
– The proportionality constant is called Planck’s Constant, (h) and has
the value 6.626 × 10−34 J∙s

41
Example 2: What is the number of photons in a laser pulse with

wavelength 337 nm and total energy 3.83 mJ?
Given: l = 337 nm, Epulse = 3.83 mJ
Find: number of photons
Conceptual Plan: l(nm) l (m) Ephoton number
photons
Relationships:
E=hc/l, 1 nm = 10−9 m, 1 mJ = 10−3 J, Etotal=Ephoton  # photons
Solve:

42
Practice – What is the frequency of radiation required to supply

1.0 × 102 J of energy from 8.5 × 1027 photons?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:
Solve:

Practice – Order the following types of electromagnetic radiation:
microwaves, gamma rays, green light, red light, ultraviolet light
• By wavelength (short to long)
• By frequency (low to high)
• By energy (least to most)

1921 Nobel Prize

The Photoelectric Effect Einstein
 It was observed that many metals emit electrons

when a light shines on their surface.
-This is called the photoelectric effect.
 Classic wave theory attributed this effect to the light energy
being transferred to the electron.
 According to this theory, if the wavelength of light is made
shorter, or the light waves’ intensity made brighter, more
electrons should be ejected.
-Remember: the energy of a wave is directly proportional to its amplitude
and its frequency.
-This idea predicts if a dim light were used there would be a lag time before
electrons were emitted to give the electrons time to absorb enough energy

45
The Photoelectric Effect

The Photoelectric Effect: The Problem

• In experiments, it was observed that there was a minimum
frequency needed before electrons would be ejected.
– called the threshold frequency
– regardless of the intensity
• It was also observed that high-frequency light from a dim
source caused electron emission without any lag time.

Ejected Electrons
• One photon at the threshold frequency gives the
electron just enough energy for it to escape the atom.
– binding energy, f
• If the metal is irradiated with a shorter wavelength
photon, the electron will absorb more energy than is
necessary to escape.
• This excess energy becomes the kinetic energy of the
ejected electron.
Kinetic Energy = Ephoton – Ebinding
KE = hn − f
48
Spectra
• When atoms or molecules absorb energy, that energy is often
released as light energy.
– fireworks, neon lights, etc.
• When that emitted light is passed through a prism, a pattern of
particular wavelengths of light is seen that is unique to that
type of atom or molecule – the pattern is called an emission
spectrum.
– non-continuous
– can be used to identify the material
• flame tests

Chemistry of Fireworks

Excited Gas Atoms Emitting Light

with Electrical Energy

Identifying Elements with

Flame Tests
Na K Li Ba
Emission Spectra

Examples of Spectra

Emission vs. Absorption Spectra
Emisson (bright lines)
Absorption (dark lines)
Spectra of Mercury

Rydberg’s Spectrum Analysis

Johannes Rydberg (1854–1919)
• Rydberg analyzed the spectrum of hydrogen and found that it

could be described with an equation that involved an inverse
square of integers.

Rutherford’s Nuclear Model

• The atom contains a tiny dense center called the nucleus.
• The volume is about 1/10 trillionth the volume of the atom.
• The nucleus is essentially the entire mass of the atom.
• The nucleus is positively charged.
• The amount of positive charge balances the negative charge
of the electrons.
• The electrons move around in the empty space of the atom
surrounding the nucleus.

Problems with Rutherford’s Nuclear

Model of the Atom
• Electrons are moving charged particles.
• According to classical physics, moving charged particles give
off energy.
• Therefore electrons should constantly be giving off energy.
– should cause the atom to glow!
• The electrons should lose energy, crash into the nucleus, and
the atom should collapse!!
– but it doesn’t!

The Bohr Model of the Atom

Neils Bohr (1885–1962)
 The nuclear model of the atom does not explain what

structural changes occur when the atom gains or loses
energy.
 Bohr developed a model of the atom to explain how the
structure of the atom changes when it undergoes energy
transitions.
 Bohr’s major idea was that the energy of the electron
transitions were quantized, and that the amount of energy in
the atom was related to the electron’s position around the
nucleus.
 Quantized means that the atom could only have very specific amounts
of energy.

Bohr’s Model
• The electrons travel in orbits that are at a fixed distance from
the nucleus.
– stationary states
– Therefore, the energy of the electron was proportional to the distance
the orbit was from the nucleus.
• Electrons emit radiation when they “jump” from an orbit with
higher energy down to an orbit with lower energy.
– The emitted radiation was a photon of light.
– The distance between the orbits determined the energy of the photon
of light produced.

Bohr Model of H Atoms

Balmer
Series

Hydrogen Energy Transitions

Wave Behavior of Electrons

Louis de Broglie (1892–1987) • PhD Thesis (1924)
• Experimentally Verified (1927)
• Nobel Prize (1929)
• Reworked Compton’s effect in the reverse direction:

• Discovered in 1923
• Nobel Prize (1927) p=h/l
• Proposed that particles could have wave-like character.
• Predicted that the wavelength of a particle was inversely
proportional to its momentum.
• Because it is so small, the wave character of electrons is
significant.
melectron = 9.109 × 10-31 kg; mproton=1.673 × 10-27 kg; mnentron = 1.675 × 10-27 kg

Electron Diffraction
• Proof that the electron had wave nature came a few years later
with the demonstration that a beam of electrons would produce
an interference pattern as waves do.
If electrons
However, electrons actually
behave only like
present an interference
pattern,particles, there
demonstrating they
should
behave like waves.only be
two bright spots
on the target.

Single Electron Interference

• What happens if we send electrons through the double slit
one at a time?

Example 3: What is the wavelength of an electron traveling

at 2.65 × 106 m/s?
Given: v = 2.65 × 106 m/s, m = 9.11 × 10−31 kg
Find: l, m
Conceptual Plan:
m, v l (m)
Relationships:
l=h/mv
Solve:

Practice – What is the wavelength of a neutron traveling at

1.00 × 102 m/s?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:
Solve:

Complementary Properties
• When you try to observe the wave nature of the electron, you
cannot observe its particle nature – and vice-versa.
Each electron is passing through
– wave nature = interference pattern both slits!
– particle nature = position, which slit it is passing through
Each electron is passing through

only one slit.
• The wave and particle nature of the electron are

complementary properties.
– As you know more about one, you know less about the other.

68
Uncertainty Principle
 Heisenberg stated that the product of the uncertainties in both
the position and speed of a particle was inversely proportional
to its mass.
 x = position, Dx = uncertainty in position
 v = velocity, Dv = uncertainty in velocity
 m = mass
 This means that the more accurately you know the position of a
small particle, such as an electron, the less you know about its
speed.
 and vice-versa
𝒉 𝟏
∆𝒙 × ∆𝒖 ≥
𝟒𝝅 𝒎

Uncertainty Principle Demonstration
Any experiment that is designed to

observe the electron results in detection
of a single electron particle and no
interference pattern.

Determinacy vs. Indeterminacy

• According to classical physics, particles move in a path
determined by the particle’s velocity, position, and forces
acting on it.
– determinacy = definite, predictable future
• Because we cannot know both the position and velocity of an
electron, we cannot predict the path it will follow.
– indeterminacy = indefinite future, can only predict probability
• The best we can do is to describe the probability an electron
will be found in a particular region using statistical functions.

Trajectory vs. Probability

Electron Energy
 Electron energy and position are complementary.
 because KE = ½mv2
 For an electron with a given energy, the best we can do is
describe a region in the atom of high probability of finding it.
 Many of the properties of atoms are related to the energies of
the electrons.

Schrödinger’s Equation
• Schrödinger’s Equation allows us to calculate the probability of
finding an electron with a particular amount of energy at a
particular location in the atom.
• Solutions to Schrödinger’s Equation produce many wave
functions, Y.
• A plot of distance vs. Y2 represents an orbital, a probability
distribution map of a region where the electron is likely to be
found.

Solutions to the Wave Function, Y

• Calculations show that the size, shape, and orientation in space
of an orbital are determined to be three integer terms in the
wave function.
– added to quantize the energy of the electron
• These integers are called quantum numbers.
– principal quantum number, n
– angular momentum quantum number, l
– orientation quantum number, ml
– magnetic spin quantum number, ms (not an integer)

Eigenfunctions of the Schrödinger’s Equation

Principal Quantum Number, n

 Characterizes the energy of the electron in a particular orbital.
 corresponds to Bohr’s energy level
 n can be any integer  1
 The larger the value of n, the more energy the orbital has.
 Energies are defined as being negative.
 An electron would have E = 0 when it just escapes the atom
 The larger the value of n, the larger the orbital.
 As n gets larger, the amount of energy between orbitals
becomes smaller .

Principal Energy Levels in Hydrogen

Angular Momentum Quantum Number, l

• The angular momentum quantum number determines the shape
of Each value of l is called by the orbital.
• l can have integer values from 0 to (n – 1).
• a particular letter that designates the shape of the orbital.
– s orbitals are spherical. l=0
– p orbitals are like two balloons tied at the knots. l=1
– d orbitals are mainly like four balloons tied at the knot. l=2
– f orbitals are mainly like eight balloons tied at the knot. l=3

79
Orientation Quantum Number, ml

• The orientation quantum number is an integer that specifies
the orientation of the orbital.
– The direction in space the orbital is aligned relative to the other
orbitals.
• Values are integers from −l to +l
– including zero
– gives the number of orbitals of a particular shape
• when l = 2, the values of ml are −2, −1, 0, +1, +2; which means
there are five orbitals with l = 2
5 d orbitals:
dxy, dxz, dyz, dx2-y2, and dz2

80
Magnetic Spin Quantum Number, ms

• The magnetic spin quantum number indicates the spin of
electrons in the orbital.
– Electron can spin with the magnetic field ( ) or against the magnetic
field ( ).
– ms has a value of +½ or –½
• Diamagnetic
– NOT attracted to a magnetic field
– Substances have paired spins.
• Paramagnetic
– Substance is attracted to a magnetic field.
– Substances with unpaired electrons are paramagnetic.

Describing an Orbital
• Each set of n, l, ml , and ms describes one orbital.
• Orbitals with the same value of n are in the same principal
energy level.
– aka principal shell
• Orbitals with the same values of n and l are said to be in the
same sublevel.
– aka subshell

Energy Shells and Subshells

Example 4: What are the quantum numbers and names

(for example, 2s, 2p) of the orbitals in the n = 4
principal level? How many orbitals exist?
Given: n=4
Find: orbital designations, number of orbitals
Conceptual Plan:
n l ml
0 → (n − 1) −l → +l
Relationships:
l: 0 → (n − 1); ml: −l → +l
n=4
Solve:
 l : 0, 1, 2, 3
n = 4, l = 0 (s) n = 4, l = 1 (p) n = 4, l = 2 (d) n = 4, l = 3 (f)
ml : 0 ml : −1,0,+1 ml : −2,−1,0,+1,+2 ml : −3,−2,−1,0,+1,+2,+3
1 orbital 3 orbitals 7 orbitals
4s 4p
5 orbitals 4f
4d
total of 16 orbitals: 1 + 3 + 5 + 7 = 42 : n2

Predicting Quantum Numbers

Determine a set of quantum numbers for an electron in a 3p
orbital.
n = 3 for an electron in the third level

Quantum Mechanical Explanation of

Atomic Spectra
• Each wavelength in the spectrum of an atom corresponds to an
electron transition between orbitals.
• When an electron is excited, it transitions from an orbital in a
lower energy level to an orbital in a higher energy level.
• When an electron relaxes, it transitions from an orbital in a
higher energy level to an orbital in a lower energy level.
• When an electron relaxes, a photon of light is released whose
energy equals the energy difference between the orbitals.

Electron Transitions
• To transition to a higher energy state, the electron must gain
the correct amount of energy corresponding to the difference in
energy between the final and initial states.
• Electrons in high energy states are unstable and tend to lose
energy and transition to lower energy states.
• Each line in the emission spectrum corresponds to the
difference in energy between two energy states.

Quantum Leaps

Predicting the Spectrum of Hydrogen

• The wavelengths of lines in the emission spectrum of
hydrogen can be predicted by calculating the difference in
energy between any two states.
• For an electron in energy state n, there are (n – 1) energy
states it can transition to, therefore (n – 1) lines it can
generate.
• Both the Bohr and Quantum Mechanical Models can predict
these lines very accurately for a one-electron system.

Energy Transitions in Hydrogen

• The energy of a photon released is equal to the difference in
energy between the two levels the electron is jumping between.
• It can be calculated by subtracting the energy of the initial state
from the energy of the final state.
DEelectron = Efinal state − Einitial state Eemitted photon = −DEelectron

Example 5: What is the wavelength of light emitted when the

hydrogen electron transitions from n = 6 to n = 5?
Given: ni = 6, nf = 5
Find: l, m
Conceptual Plan: ni, nf DEatom Ephoton l
DEatom = −Ephoton
Relationships: E = hc/l, En = −2.18 x 10−18 J (1/n2)
Solve:
Ephoton = −(−2.6644 x 10−20 J) = 2.6644 x 10−20 J
The unit is correct. The wavelength is in the infrared, which is appropriate

Check: because it is less energy than 4→2 (in the visible).

Practice: What is the wavelength of light emitted when the

hydrogen electron transitions from n = 2 to n = 1?
Given:
Find:
Conceptual Plan:
Relationships:
Solve:
Check:

Probability & Radial Distribution Functions

• y2 is the probability density.
– The probability of finding an electron at a particular point in space.
– for s orbital maximum at the nucleus?
– decreases as you move away from the nucleus
• The Radial Distribution function represents the total
probability at a certain distance from the nucleus.
– maximum at most probable radius
• Nodes in the functions are where the probability drops to 0.

Probability Density Function

The probability density function represents the total probability
of finding an electron at a particular point in space.

Radial Distribution Function

The radial distribution function represents the
total probability of finding an electron within
a thin spherical shell at a distance r from the
nucleus.
The probability at a point decreases with

increasing distance from the nucleus, but the
volume of the spherical shell increases.
The net result is a plot that indicates the most

probable distance of the electron in a 1s
orbital of H is 52.9 pm.

2s and 3s Orbitals
2s 3s
n = 2, n = 3,
l=0 l=0

The Shapes of Atomic Orbitals

• The l quantum number primarily determines the shape of the
orbital.
• l can have integer values from 0 to (n – 1).
• Each value of l is called by a particular letter that designates the
shape of the orbital.
– s orbitals are spherical.
– p orbitals are like two balloons tied at the knots.
– d orbitals are mainly like four balloons tied at the knot.
– f orbitals are mainly like eight balloons tied at the knot.

l = 0, the s Orbital
• Each principal energy level has one s
orbital.
• Lowest energy orbital in a principal
energy state
• Spherical
• Number of nodes = (n – 1)

l = 1, p Orbitals
• Each principal energy state above n = 1 has three p orbitals.
– ml = −1, 0, +1
• Each of the three orbitals points along a different axis
– px , py , pz
• 2nd lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state
• Two-lobed
• One node at the nucleus, total of n nodes

p Orbitals

l = 2, d Orbitals
• Each principal energy state above n = 2 has five d orbitals.
- ml = −2, − 1, 0, +1, +2
• Four of the five orbitals are aligned in a different plane.
- the fifth is aligned with the z axis, dz squared
- dxy, dyz, dxz, dx squared – y squared
• 3rd lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy level
• Mainly four-lobed
- one is two-lobed with a toroid
• Planar nodes
- higher principal levels also have spherical nodes

d Orbitals

s, p, and d Atomic Orbitals

l = 3, f Orbitals
• Each principal energy state above n = 3 has seven f orbitals.
– ml = −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3
• 4th lowest energy orbitals in a principal energy state
• Mainly eight-lobed
– some two-lobed with a toroid
• Planar nodes
– higher principal levels also have spherical nodes.

f orbitals

Radial Distribution Functions

Summary
• The Wavelength and The Frequency of Electromagnetic
Radiation
• The Energy of a Photon
• Photoelectric Effect and the Speed of the Ejected Electrons
• Using de Broglie Relation to Calculate the Wavelength
• Electronic Transitions in the Hydrogen Atom (Bohr Model)
• Relating Quantum Numbers to One Another and to Their
Corresponding Atomic Orbitals

The Fifth Solvay Conference (1927)

Chapters 02 and 03 PT 1 - Atomic Theory and The Quantum Mechanical Model of An Atom S2020

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Chapters 02 and 03 PT 1 - Atomic Theory and The Quantum Mechanical Model of An Atom S2020

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Department of Chemistry

and Chemical Biology

Uses for Vinyl Acetate (%)

Chapter 3: Atomic Theory and the

Dalton’s Atomic Theory

1) Matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called

Discovery of the Electron

• Cathode ray tube:

• When a high voltage was applied across the electrodes, a

• Regardless of the metals used, this beam was always

• Thompson was able to calculate the charge-to-mass ratio

Spring 2020 CHEM 1100 4

Measuring the Charge of an Electron –

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• Millikan concluded that 1.6 × 10–19 C was the charge

• Thompson had previously shown that the charge to

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Rutherford Gold-Foil Experiment

• a particles are positively charged.

• The scattering of these a particles was examined using a luminescent screen

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• A small, relatively heavy, positively charged body, the nucleus,

• The nucleus contains most of the atom’s mass.

• Negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus.

• The proton, a positively charged, subatomic particle is located in

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The Beginnings of Quantum Mechanics

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Theory of Superposition-Schrödinger’s Cat

Theory of Quantum Entanglement

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The Behavior of Electrons

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A Theory that Explains Electron Behavior

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Much of what was learned in the early 20th century

We call the interaction of light and matter

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Interaction of Light with Matter

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Speed of Energy Transmission

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The Relationship Between Wavelength

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Example 1: What is the wavelength of red light with a

Conceptual Plan: n (s−1) l (m) l (nm)

Check: The unit is correct and the wavelength is appropriate for

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Practice: What is the wavelength of a radio signal with a

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Amplitude & Wavelength

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Frequency and Amplitude

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The Electromagnetic Spectrum

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Types of Electromagnetic Radiation