 THE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES

ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

1. Living cells carry out the following
processes :
a) Absorb water and nutrient such as
minerals, ions, glucose and amino acids
from the surroundings.
b) Excrete waste products such as urea and
uric acid that are not needed by the cells.
c) Exchange respiratory gases
(oxygen and carbon dioxide) during
respiration.
2. These processes are essential to a cell because
they help the cell :
a) Maintain the optimal pH value and concentration
gradient of ions that are suitable for the activities of the
cell.
b) Obtain nutrients for metabolism.
c) Eliminate toxic waste products from the cell.
d) Secrete useful substances such as hormones and
enzymes.
3. The movement of substances in and out of cells
occurs across the plasma membrane.
4. The plasma membrane regulates the exchange
of substances between the content of a cell and
the external environment.
THE STRUCTURE OF THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
1. Plasma membrane are composed mainly by
phospholipids and proteins.
2. In 1972, S. J. Singer &
G. L. Nicolson
introduced the fluid-
mosaic model of the
membrane structure.
They proposed that
membrane proteins
are dispersed
throughout and
inserted into the
phospholipids bilayer.
3. Each phospholipid molecule consists of two parts :
i. A polar head which is hydrophilic (attracted to water),
ii. A non-polar tails consist of fatty acids which is
hydrophobic (repelled by water).
4. At the plasma membrane, phospholipids are
arranged in two layers (bilayer).

The hydrophobic heads

of the outer layer face
the extracellular fluid.

The hydrophilic heads

of the inner layer face
the cytoplasmic fluid.
5. The phospholipids bilayer acts as a barrier which is
isolates the two sides of the membrane.
6. It contains cholesterol, links the fatty acids together.
 Cholesterol helps to stabilise and strengthen the
plasma membrane.
 It makes it more flexible and less permeable to water-
soluble substances such as ions.
7. It also contains proteins which are either partially
attached to the surface or wholly embedded in the
membrane.
a) Pore protein – protein that forms a channel or a pore.
b) Carrier protein – protein that acts as a carrier.
c) Glycoprotein s – proteins that attached with
carbohydrates.`
8. According to this model,
a) The phospholipid bilayer, proteins and other
components are not rigid or static, but form a
dynamic and flexible structure.
b) The protein molecules float about freely in the
phospholipid bilayer.
c) The proteins and the phospholipids are free to
move sideways within the membrane, and this
causes the membrane to have a fluid
characteristic.
d) The various proteins built into the plasma
membrane form a mosaic pattern.
THE PERMEABILITY OF THE PLASMA
MEMBRANE
1. The plasma membrane is semi-permeable or
selective permeable. It means only some
substances are freely to move across the membrane
while others cannot.
2. The selective permeability of the plasma membrane
depends on the
a) Selective barrier of the phospholipid bilayer,
b) Specific transport proteins built into the membrane.
3. The size and polarity of molecules determine the
movement of these molecules across the plasma
membrane.
4. The phospholipid bilayer is permeable to
Non-polar molecules Small, uncharged
(lipid-soluble) molecules

5. The phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to

Charged ions Polar molecules (lipid-insoluble)

6. There are two ways in which molecules can move

across the plasma membrane : passive transport
and active transport.
 Movement of substances across
the plasma membrane

Passive Active
transport transport

Molecules transported Molecules transported

down the against the
concentration gradient concentration gradient

Simple Facilitated
Osmosis
diffusion diffusion
 THE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE : PASSIVE TRANSPORT
1. In passive transport, no energy is used by the cell
during the movement of substances.
2. Substances move into or out of the cell according to
their concentration gradients, which provide the
potential energy that drives the movement and
controls the direction of movement into or out of
the cell.
3. A concentration gradient is the difference in the
concentration of a substance between two regions.
 SIMPLE DIFFUSION
1. Simple diffusion in the net movement of molecules
or ions from a region of high concentration to a
region of lower concentration.
2. Diffusion of substances occurs until equilibrium is
achieved and the particles are equally distributed
throughout the system.
3. Molecules which move across the plasma
membrane by simple diffusion include :
a) Lipid-soluble molecules such as vitamins A, D, E and K.
b) Small molecules such as water.
c) Dissolved gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide.
THE PROCESS OF DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the spontaneous net movement of particles from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration in a given volume of fluid
(either liquid or gas) down the concentration gradient.
THE PROCESS OF DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the spontaneous net movement of particles from an area of high

concentration to an area of low concentration in a given volume of fluid
(either liquid or gas) down the concentration gradient.
 OSMOSIS
1. Osmosis is the net movement of water molecules
from a region of low solute concentration to a
region of high solute concentration through a semi-
permeable membrane.
 High water concentration – solution with a low
concentration of solute in the water.
 Low water concentration – high concentration of solute
in the water.
2. Water molecules move across the phospholipid
bilayer and pore protein in the plasma membrane
by osmosis.
 THE PROCESS OF OSMOSIS

Osmosis is the diffusion of water down its concentration gradient. Normally one thinks
of water as the solvent, and focuses on the concentration of the solutes, but water itself
has a concentration in any solution.
RECAP!
Similarities in Simple diffusion and Osmosis
 Does not require energy to move the substances across
the plasma membrane.
 Molecules move down the concentration gradient.
 Molecules move from region of higher concentration to
region of lower concentration until a state of dynamic
equilibrium is reached.
Differences between Simple diffusion and Osmosis
Simple diffusion Osmosis
Involves the movement of any Involves only the water
molecules. molecules.
Does not require a semi- Occurs through a semi-
permeable membrane. permeable membrane.
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
1. Facilitated diffusion is the movement of lipid-
insoluble molecules (ions, nucleic acids, amino
acids and glucose) across the plasma membrane
with the help of transport proteins.
2. Facilitated diffusion does not require energy
because the transport proteins move the molecules
down their concentration gradients.
3. There are two types of transport proteins :
a) Carrier protein
b) Pore protein
4. Carrier proteins
a) They have binding sites that can combine
reversibly with specific molecules and transport
them across the plasma membrane.
b) They are specific as each can only combine with
specific molecules.
5. Pore proteins
a) They forms pores or channels through which
small dissolved particles, especially ions can
diffuse across the plasma membrane.
b) They usually have specific shapes and charges
that only allow specific ions to pass through.
The mechanism of facilitated diffusion with the aid of a
carrier protein
 THE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE : ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1. Active transport is the movement of molecules or
ions against the concentration gradient across the
plasma membrane.
2. Active transport requires both carrier proteins and
energy (ATP) to transport the molecules or ions.
3. The carrier protein has an active site which binds to
a particular molecule or ion and another site which
binds to the ATP molecule.
4. The carrier protein changes shape when the
phosphate group from the ATP molecule binds to it.
5. Then, the solute is moved across the membrane.
6. Active transport results in the accumulation
and elimination of molecules or ions from
the cell.
7. Carrier proteins involved in active transport
are often called pumps because they operate
like water pumps which use energy to move
water against gravity.
8. One such pump which is found in all animal
cells, especially in nerve and muscle cells,
the sodium-potassium pump.
9. In an animal cell, the concentration of potassium
ions inside the cell is always higher than the
concentration outside the cell.
10. While the concentration of sodium ions outside the
cell is always higher than the concentration inside
the cell.
11. The sodium-potassium pumps help to maintain the
concentration gradients by pumping sodium ions
(Na+) out of the cell and potassium ions (K+) into
the cell.
The mechanism of active transport for sodium ions
RECAP!
Differences between Passive Transport and Active
Transport
Passive transport Active transport
The movement of substances The movement of substances
follows the concentration against the concentration
gradient. gradient.
Cellular energy is not required. Cellular energy (ATP) is
required.
The process continues until a The process results in the
dynamic equilibrium is accumulation or elimination of
reached. substances from the cell.
Differences between Passive Transport and Active Transport
 THE PROCESS OF PASSIVE AND ACTIVE
TRANSPORT IN LIVING ORGANISMS
 SIMPLE DIFFUSION
1. Gaseous exchange through the stomata of leaves
during photosynthesis.
2. Evaporation of water from leaf cells through
stomata during transpiration.
3. Gaseous exchange in unicellular organisms such
Amoeba sp.
4. Gaseous exchange between the alveoli and blood
capillaries during respiration.
 OSMOSIS
1. Osmoregulation (water balance) in aquatic organisms.
2. The movement of water from one plant cell to another.
3. Transport of water in the cortex of plant stems.
4. Water uptake by plant roots.
 FACILITATED DIFFUSION
1. Movement of small molecules such as amino acids and
glucose into the blood capillaries of the villi.
 ACTIVE TRANSPORT
1. Uptake of mineral salts and ions by root hairs. The
concentration of ions and mineral salts is higher in the cell
sap than in the soil. These substances are transported into
the cells via active transport.
2. Accumulation and elimination of substances by organisms
which live in the sea.
 MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS THE
PLASMA MEMBRANE IN EVERYDAY LIFE
 THE EFFECTS OF HYPOTONIC, HYPERTONIC AND
ISOTONIC SOLUTIONS ON ANIMAL AND PLANT
CELLS
 HYPERTONIC : Solution with a higher solute
concentration.
[Hyper : more]
 HYPOTONIC : Solution with a lower solute
concentration.
[Hypo : less]
 ISOTONIC : Solution in which the concentration of
solutes are equal.
[Iso : equal]
 ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS IN AN ISOTONIC SOLUTION
1. The cytoplasm of animal cells contain water, solutes and
other substances. In plant cells, these substances are stored
mainly in the large central vacuole.
2. Plant cells have a cell wall made of cellulose, which
envelope the plasma membrane. The cell wall is fully
permeable to solute and water.
3. Animal cells contain cytoplasmic fluid that is surrounded by
the interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
4. The movement of water across the plasma membrane is
determined by the concentration of substances in the
interstitial fluid that bathe the cells.
5. Since living cells need to be in a stable internal environment,
the interstitial fluid of animal cells is usually isotonic to the
cytoplasmic fluid within the cells.
6. An isotonic solution is a solution in which the concentration
of solutes is equal to that of the cytoplasm of the cell.
a) Water diffuses into and out of the cell at equal rate.
b) No net movement of water across the plasma
membrane (no net gain or loss of water).
c) The cells retain their normal shape.
7. it is important for the cells in animal’s body to be bathed in
tissue fluid which is isotonic. This to ensure the shape of the
cells remains intact and prevents the cells from swelling and
shrinking.
 ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS IN A HYPOTONIC SOLUTION
1. Solutions which contain a higher concentration of water
than that of the cytoplasm are called hypotonic solutions.
2. Hypotonic solutions contain a lower concentration of solutes
than the cell.
3. Since the concentration of water is higher outside the cell,
there is a net movement of water from the outside into the
cell.
4. The cell gains water, swells and the internal pressure
increases.
 THE EFFECT OF HYPOTONIC SOLUTIONS ON ANIMAL CELLS

When red blood cells The cells start to swell and This condition is
are immersed in a eventually burst. This causes the known as
hypotonic solution, plasma membrane to rupture and haemolysis.
water diffuses into the the contents of the cells are
cells by osmosis. released into the surroundings.
 THE EFFECT OF HYPOTONIC SOLUTIONS ON PLANT CELLS

When plant cells are The large central vacuole expands The plant cell does
immersed in a and swell up. The vacuole and not burst because its
hypotonic solution, cytoplasm press outwards against rigid cell wall is
water diffuses into the the plasma membrane which in strong enough to
large central vacuole turn presses hard against the cell resist the increasing
by osmosis. wall. The cell becomes turgid. pressure within.
 ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS IN A HYPERTONIC SOLUTION
1. Solutions which contain a higher concentration of solutes
than that of the cytoplasm are called hypertonic solutions.
2. Since the concentration of water is higher within the cell,
there is a net movement of water from the inside to the
outside of the cell. As a result, water leaves the cell.
3. This causes the cell to shrink or shrivel as its internal
pressure decreases.
 THE EFFECT OF HYPERTONIC SOLUTIONS ON ANIMAL CELLS

When red blood cells The cell loses water to This condition is
are immersed in a the external known as
hypertonic solution, environment, shrivels crenation.
water diffuses out of and the plasma
the cells by osmosis. membrane crinkles up.
  THE EFFECT OF HYPERTONIC SOLUTIONS ON PLANT CELLS

Water moves into

the cell by osmosis
and the cell
When plant cells becomes turgid
are immersed in a again. This
hypertonic condition known as
solution, water deplasmolysis.
diffuses out of
the large central
vacuole by
osmosis. A plasmolysed
plant cell can
become turgid
again by
Both the vacuole and This condition is The plant immersing the cell
cytoplasm lose water to known as cell in a hypotonic
the surroundings and plasmolysis, a becomes solution like pure
shrink. The plasma shrinking of flaccid and water.
membrane pulls away cytoplasm due to less turgid.
from the cell wall. osmosis.
RECAP!
THE EFFECTS OF SOLUTIONS AT DIFFERENT CONCENTRATIONS
ON ANIMAL AND PLANT CELLS
Type of Appearance of
Type of cell Process
solution the cells
Hypotonic Animal cell Haemolysis Haemolysed/
solution fragmented
Plant cells - Turgid
Hypertonic Animal cells Crenation Crenated /
solution shrivelled
Plant cells Plasmolysis Flaccid
Distilled Plant cells Deplasmolysis Turgid
water
 THE EFFECTS OF ISOTONIC, HYPOTONIC AND HYPERTONIC
SOLUTIONS ON THE STEMS OF NON-WOODY PLANTS
SOLUTION Distilled water 17% sucrose solution 30% sucrose solution
(hypotonic solution) (isotonic solution) (hypertonic solution)
Shape

Appearance The strip becomes The length and shape The strip becomes
longer, thicker, turgid of the strip remain the shorter, thinner and
and firm. It curves same. softer. It curves
outwards with the inwards with the
epidermal layer on the epidermal layer on the
inside. outside.
Discussion Water enters the cell Water enters and Water leaves the cells
by osmosis through leaves the cell at the by osmosis through
the cut surface and same rate. the cut surface and
causes the cells to causes the cells to
swell. become flaccid.