 THE NECESSITY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF NEW

CELLS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

1. Cells in the body are continuously dividing, growing and
dying. Dead cells need to be replaced with new cells. All
organisms grow and change through cell division.
2. New cells are produced from existing cells, through a
process known as mitotic cell division.
3. Mitotic cell division involves the process of nuclear
division called mitosis, followed by a cytoplasmic division
called cytokinesis.
 The types of cells that undergo mitosis
1. In plants, mitotic cell division occurs actively in the
meristematic tissues of the root tips and bud tips.
2. Meristematic tissues are also found in terminal buds, the
vascular cambium and cork cambium.
3. Active cell division in meristematic tissues allows growth
and elongation of a plant to take place at faster rate.
4. In animals, growth takes place in every part of the body.
5. For example, the human skin has Malpighian layers that
undergo mitotic cell division to produce new cells to
replace dead skin cells. During the growth process, the
Malpighian layers also add to the skin area.
 Process of nuclear division which results in the
formation of two genetically identical daughter nuclei.

The significant of mitosis

a. Mitosis replaces dead cells. For example, skin cells can
live for only two weeks, after which new cells are formed
through mitosis.
b. It allows damaged cells to be repaired, replaced, or even
regenerated. For example, liver cells can regenerate
themselves following an injury through the process of
mitosis to replace the damaged or lost part.
c. It is the basis of asexual reproduction in unicellular
organisms such as Amoeba sp. The daughter cells
produced are genetically identical to the parent cell. This
type of cell division, which produces two new organisms,
is also known as binary fission.
d. It increases the number of cells in all living organisms,
thus allowing growth and development in multicellular
organisms.
o In multicellular organisms, the zygote divides and
grows into two cells, then four, eight and eventually
into millions of cells that make up a multicellular
organism.
o All the cells that are formed are genetically identical.
This mean that all the cells in our body have the same
genes; be it a cell in the liver, a cell in the skin or a cell
in the brain.
e. It results in the formation of two daughter nuclei which
are genetically identical to each other and to the parent
nucleus. Each nucleus contains the same number of
chromosomes and the same genetic materials as the
parent cell.
 CHROMOSOMES AND
CHROMOSOMAL
NUMBER
1. The genetic information
in an organism is carried
in its chromosomes.
Chromosomes contain
genes which determine
the characteristics of the
organism.
2. A chromosome contains
a long molecule of DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid)
which stores the genetic
information.
1. The number of chromosomes present in
the cells of each species of an individual
organism is constant. This number is
referred to as the chromosomal
number of the species.
2. Each somatic cell (body cell) in the
human body contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes. Each pair of
chromosomes is called a homologous
chromosomes. Homologous Organism Chromosome Value of n
chromosomes are similar in shape and number (2n)
size and carry the same type of genes. Human 46 23
3. Since chromosomes in the nucleus exist Cat 38 19
in pairs, the chromosomal number is
Frog 26 13
said to be diploid and is designated as
Housefly 12 6
2n.
Cabbage 18 9
4. Different organisms (species) have
different chromosome numbers. Sunflower 34 17
Onion 16 8
1. The gametes contain only half the number of chromosomes or only
one of each pair of chromosomes, that is a single set. The
chromosomal number is said to be haploid and is designated as n.
2. All somatic cells have two sets
of chromosomes: one set
inherited from each parent.
Therefore, one set of the
chromosomes is of paternal
origin, whereas the other set is
of maternal origin.
3. The two chromosomes in each
pair have the same structural
features and are referred to as
homologous chromosomes.
Each member of the pair is
called a homologue.
4. Both chromosomes of each
pair carry genes for the same
trait (for example, eye colour)
at the same location.
5. Cells with two sets of homologous chromosomes are called diploid
cells (example, somatic cells) while cells which contain only one set
of chromosomes are called haploid cells (example, sperm and egg).
6. Of the 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes in human, one pair is
the sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes (XX) while
males have an X chromosomes and a Y chromosomes (XY).
7. Each of the gametes or reproductive cell contain only one set of
chromosomes or one of each kind of chromosomes found in
somatic cell. Therefore, each human gamete only contains one set
of 23 chromosomes or haploid number of chromosomes (n).
 THE CELL CYCLE
1. The cell cycle is a cyclic sequence of events that a cell
undergoes, from the time it is formed until it divides
completely into two. It involves cell growth and asexual
reproduction.
2. There are two main phases in the cell cycle :
a) Interphase, which is divided into subphase G1, S and
G2.
b) Cell division or the M phase, which is divided into
mitosis and cytokinesis.
 Interphase
1. Interphase is a long phase, taking up about 90% of the cell
cycle. It can be divided into three subphases, namely, G1, S
and G2 subphases.
2. G1 is the first gap phase of the cell cycle, S is the synthesis
phase and G2 is the second phase.
3. During all the three subphases, growth of cell occurs. The
cell is metabolically active. It synthesis proteins and forms
new organelles, including centrioles.
4. Chromosomes are not clearly visible at this stage because
they are very long and fine. Chromosomes which are not
clearly visible are known as chromatin.
5. It is during G1 phase that the cell decides whether or not to
divide. The decision is usually based on environmental
conditions.
1. If environmental conditions are
favourable for the cell to divide, the
cell will enter the next phase, the S
phase.
2. During the S phase,replication of
DNA and duplication of
chromosomes occur (S stands for
synthesis of DNA). The DNA
molecule in each chromosomes
makes an exact copy of itself. As a
result of DNA replication, each
chromosome becomes duplicated. A
duplicated chromosome will become
visible during mitosis as a pair of
chromatids joined by a centromere.
3. After the S phase comes the G2
phase (second gap phase). The cell
continues to grow and synthesis
organelles.
 Mitosis (M phase)
1. Mitosis can be
divided into four
phases, namely
prophase,
metaphase,
anaphase, and
telophase. Mitosis is
actually a continuous
process, where one
phase leads to
another without a
clear dividing line.
 The four phases of mitosis
Phase/ description Appearance of cell
1.Prophase
Each chromosome shortens and thickens, and becomes
visible as a pair of chromatids joined by a centromere.
Spindle threads emerge.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are gradually broken down.
2. Metaphase
Chromosomes arrange themselves
at the cell equator.
Spindle formation is complete.

3. Anaphase
The centromere of each chromosome splits and its
chromatids are pulled to opposite poles of the cell by the
spindle threads.

4. Telophase
Chromosomes have reached the poles of the cell.
A nuclear membrane is re-formed to surround each set of
chromosomes. Nucleolus is also re-formed. Hence, two
daughter nuclei are formed.
 Cytokinesis
1. Cytokinesis is the division of cytoplasm after the mitotic
division of nucleus.
2. In an animal cell, cytokinesis occurs by mean of
constriction of the plasma membrane at the cell equator.
Eventually the cell breaks at the constricted region and two
daughter cells are formed.
3. In a plant cell, a cell plate is formed at the cell equator. The
cell plate enlarges and eventually comes into contact with
the plasma membrane. A new cell wall is formed on each
side of the cell plate.
Cytokinesis in animal and plant cell
 Comparison of mitosis and cytokinesis in animal and plant
cells.
SIMILARITIES
1. Both involve interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
telophase and cytokinesis.
2. Nucleus divides once and cytoplasm divides once.
3. Daughter cells are genetically identical to the parent cell.
DIFFERENCES
Animal cell Plant cell
1. Spindle threads emerge 1. Spindle threads do not
from centrioles. emerge from centrioles.
2. Cytokinesis occurs by 2. Cytokinesis occurs by the
constriction of the formation of cell plate.
cytoplasm.
 MITOSIS AS A CONTROLLED PROCESS
1. Mitosis is a controlled process. The genetic information
in the chromosomes of the cell itself determines when
the cell will divide and at what rate.
2. Different cells, divide at different times and rates.
3. This is necessary to produce new cells to replace
superficial skin cells which are constantly worn off due
to friction.
4. Cells in organs such as the lungs and liver usually stop
dividing when they are fully grown, unless there is an
injury to the organs.
5. Mitosis is usually controlled to suit the need of the
organism. For example,
a. When the stem of a plant is cut off, mitosis b. When a lizard loses its tail, the remaining
will occur quickly to produce a new shoot. stump of tail will carry out mitosis quickly to
regenerate a new tail.

c. When there is a wound or cut in the skin, d. After a person has lost or donated blood,
mitosis will occur quickly to bring about mitosis will occur even more rapidly than
healing. usual to produce new blood cells.
 UNCONTROLLED MITOSIS
1. Mitosis that is out of control can give rise
to diseases. A good example is seen in
the case of leukaemia.
2. Leukaemia is caused by mutation (a
change in genetic information) in the
stem cells of the bone marrow.
3. The mutation causes the bone marrow to
produce white blood cells at a rate that is A normal person has about
7000 WBC in every mm3 of
much higher than normal. It also causes blood, whereas a leukaemia
the bone marrow to produce red blood patient may have as many as
20000 or more.
cells and platelets at a rate that is much
slower than normal.
4. Hence, a leukaemia patient suffers from
insufficient oxygen, weakness and
difficulty in blood clotting.
5. Uncontrolled mitosis can also result in the formation
of tumours. A tumour is a mass of abnormal cells.
6. If the tumour remains at its original site, it is called a
benign tumour.
7. If the tumour spreads to other parts of the body, it is
called a malignant tumour. The person concerned is
said to be suffering from cancer.
8. Cancerous cells can
be carried by blood
or lymph to other
parts of the body,
where they continue
their uncontrolled
mitosis to form new
Benign tumours
 Malignant tumours

Breast cancer Breast cancer

Breast cancer Brain tumour

 APPLICATION OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF MITOSIS IN
CLONING
1. Cloning is the process of producing new individuals from
a single parent by means of mitosis.
2. The asexual reproduction of plants from vegetative
organs is an example of cloning which occurs naturally.
3. Cloning can also be done artificially by applying the
knowledge of mitosis. An example of this is the cloning
of a plant by tissue culture technique.
4. To clone plants by tissue culture technique, young
tissues are used. They can be obtained from any
growing part of the plant.
5. The plant tissues are cut into small pieces called
explants using sterilised scalpel.
6. The explants are transferred into a test tube containing
a culture medium. The culture medium is a mixture of
mineral nutrient solution and growth hormones. The
growth hormones are for stimulating mitosis and growth
of the explants.
7. After a few weeks, the explants develop new shoots.
8. The shoots are cut to separate them from the explants.
They are placed in a new culture medium to allow their
roots to develop.
9. When the young plants have rooted, they can be
transferred to a nursery to ne nurtured. When they are
mature enough, they are transferred to the plantation.
Cloning of plant
Cloning of an animal
 THE ADVANTAGES OF CLONING
1. Many identical plants with desirable characteristics can be
produced. This is advantageous in agriculture.
2. Organisms which have problems in sexual reproduction can be
cloned to produce new individuals, thus overcoming the infertility
problem.
3. Maturation time is shorter.

 THE DISADVANTAGES OF CLONING

1. Diseases spread more easily through a plantation that is planted
with clones. This is because all the clones have identical
characteristics.
2. There is no genetic variation among clones.
3. Since the clones are genetically identical, when there is a change in
environmental conditions of an infection, the risk of extinction
(death of the entire population of clones) is high.
4. Clones generally have shorter lifespan compared to organisms
produced sexually.