1. The gametes of human beings are the sperm and ovum.

Each gamete contains only 23 chromosomes. The

chromosomes are not paired. In other words, there is only
one of each type of chromosome. The gametes are said to
be haploid (n = 23).
2. The gametes contain only half of the chromosomes
number compared to the somatic cells. This is because
the gametes are formed by the process of meiosis. During
meiosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced to half.
Hence, meiosis is also known as reduction division.
3. It is necessary for gametes to be haploid (n). When
fertilisation occurs, the zygote formed will be diploid (n +
n = 2n). The organism which develops from the zygote will
have same diploid chromosomes number as its parents.
4. In the case of human beings, the offspring receives half of
his/her chromosomes from the mother and another half
from the father. Hence, traits from both parents are
inherited by the offspring. For this reason, you may have
some of your father’s features and some of your mothers’s.
Woman Man
(23 pairs of chromosomes) (23 pairs of chromosomes)
Meiosis Meiosis

Ovum Sperm
(23 chromosomes) (23 chromosomes)

Fertilisation

Zygote
(23 pairs of chromosomes)

Mitosis
Offspring

Meiosis maintains the diploid chromosomes number from one generation to the next
 THE CELLS THAT UNDERGO MEIOSIS
1. In plants, meiosis occurs in the anther and in the ovule.
As a result of meiosis in the anther, haploid pollens are
produced. The male gamete is found in the pollen.
Meiosis in the ovule produces a haploid embryosac,
which contains the female gamete or egg cell.

2. In animals and humans, meiosis occurs in testis and

ovary, producing sperm and ovum respectively.
 THE PROCESS OF MEIOSIS
1. Meiosis can be divided into :
a. Meiosis I – which comprises prophase I, metaphase I,
anaphase I and telophase I
b. Meiosis II – which comprises prophase II, metaphase II,
anaphase II and telophase II.
2. Interphase occurs before meiosis I.
3. Cytokinesis occurs at the end of meiosis I and meiosis II.
 The phases of meiosis
Phase/ description Appearance of cell
1. Interphase (occurs before meiosis)
Chromosomes are not clearly visible.
Replication of DNA and duplication of chromosomes occurs.
2. Prophase I
Each chromosome is now seen as a pair
of chromatids joined by a centromere.
Homologous chromosomes pair up. Such
a pair is called a bivalent and the pairing
process is called synapsis. In a bivalent,
chromatids exchange genetic material at
points called chiasmata (singular :
chiasma). The process is known as
crossing over.
Nuclear membrane and nucleolus are
broken down.
Spindle formation begins.
Phase/ description Appearance of cell
2. Metaphase I
Homologous chromosomes arrange themselves in pairs at the
cell equator.
The arrangement is random. Any chromosomes could face
any of the two cell poles. This is known as the independent
assortment of chromosomes.
3. Anaphase I
Homologous chromosomes separate and move to opposite
poles of the cells.

4. Telophase I
Chromosomes reach the poles.
Spindle threads disappear.
Nuclear membrane and nucleoli are re-formed.

5. Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides so that two cells are formed.
Phase/ description Appearance of cell
6. Prophase II
Nuclear membrane is broken down again.
Formation of new spindle begins.
Each chromosome is now unpaired.
7. Metaphase II
Chromosomes arrange themselves at the new
cell equator.
Centromere split.
8. Anaphase II
Chromatids (now called chromosomes) move
to opposite poles of the cell.
9. Telophase II
Chromosomes reach at the poles.
Spindle threads disappear.
Nuclear membrane and nucleoli are re-formed.

10. Cytokinesis
Cytoplasm divides.
Four haploid cells are formed. They are all
genetically different from one another.
 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS
1. Meiosis halves the chromosome number during the
formation of gametes, so that the gametes formed are
haploid. The diploid number is restored upon
fertilisation.
2. As a result of the crossing over during prophase I and the
independent assortment of chromosomes during
metaphase I, the gametes formed are all genetically
different. This gives rise to variation among offspring.
Variation is important in ensuring the continued
existence of a species under changing environmental
conditions.
3. Meiosis also enables trait inheritance to occur from
parents to offspring.
 APPREACIATING THE MOVEMENT OF
CHROMOSOMES DURING MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS
Orderly movement of chromosomes during mitosis and
meiosis
1. During cell divisions, chromosomes move to the cell
equator and then towards the poles in an orderly manner.
2. In mitosis, such orderly movement ensures that the
daughter cells contain exactly the same number of
chromosomes as the parent cell.
3. In meiosis, such orderly movement ensures that the
daughter cells contain half the number of chromosomes
of the parent cell.
4. The movement of chromosomes is guided by spindle
threads.
5. Errors in spindle thread connection can result in the
formation of cells with an abnormal number of
chromosomes.
6. If such errors occur in meiosis, the gametes formed may
have an extra chromosome compared to normal
gametes. They may also have one chromosome less than
normal gametes. When these abnormal gametes are
fertilised, the offspring formed will have one
chromosome more, or less, than the normal offspring.
7. Some diseases in humans are caused by such errors. For
example :
a. Down’s syndrome or
Mongolism is caused by the
presence of an extra
chromosome 21. This means
there are 47 chromosomes
in a Down’s syndrome
person. The abnormal
chromosome number causes
the person to be physically
and mentally retarded.
a. Turner’s syndrome results
when a female has only
one chromosome X
instead of two (X0 instead
of the normal XX). A
Turner’s syndrome
woman has no ovaries
and is, therefore, sterile.
a. Klinefelter’s syndrome results
when a male has an extra
chromosome X (XXY instead
of the normal XY). The
patient is a sterile male with
abnormally small testes and
has feminine characteristics
such as breast development
and little facial hair.
8. Certain chemicals, for example colchicine, are found to
hinder spindle formation.
9. During normal division, centromeres split and
chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell. If the
spindle formation is hindered by certain chemicals, the
chromosomes that have split will not be able to move to
the poles. When nuclear membrane are formed, all the
chromosomes will be enclosed. The resulting cell will
have double chromosome number compared to the
normal cell. It will, therefore, abnormal characteristics.
10. Hence, it is important to avoid chemicals which can
cause errors in spindle thread connection or hinder
spindle formation.
Preventing mutation
1. The characteristics of an organism are determined by
genetic information in the chromosomes that the
organism inherits from its parents.
2. Genetic information may change. This is known as
mutation. Mutation can result in cancers.
3. Mutations may be induced by ultraviolet radiation in
sunlight, radioactive rays and carcinogenic substances.
4. Examples of radioactive rays are beta and gamma rays.
They are produced by radioactive substances such as
plutonium and uranium.
5. Carcinogens are cancer-causing chemicals. Example of
carcinogenic substances are sodium nitrite and afflatoxin.
Sodium nitrite is used as a food preservative, while
afflatoxin is found in improperly stored cereals and nuts
that are overgrown with fungi.
6. Therefore it is important to avoid radioactive rays and
carcinogenic substances which can harm our
chromosomes, causing mutations and cancers.
 MEIOSIS I MEIOSIS II

COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND MEIOSIS II

SIMILARITIES
Both are nuclear divisions.
Spindle formation and the breaking down of nuclear membrane and nucleoli occur during
prophase of both meiosis I and II.
Nuclear membrane and nucleoli are re-formed during the telophase of both meiosis I and II.

DIFFERENCES
Occurs prior to meiosis I Interphase Does not occur prior to
meiosis II
Occurs Replication of DNA and Does not occur
duplication of chromosomes
Occurs Crossing over Does not occur

Chromosomes arrange Metaphase Chromosomes arrange

themselves at the equator in themselves at the equator in
pairs singly
Is halved Chromosome number Is maintained

Does not occur Splitting of centromeres Occurs

At the end of meiosis I When the cell is haploid Throughout meiosis II

Two Number of cells formed at Four

the end
 MEIOSIS MITOSIS

COMPARISON BETWEEN MEIOSIS AND MITOSIS

SIMILARITIES
Both are nuclear divisions.
Both involve prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase.
Replication of DNA occurs during interphase before both divisions.
Duplication of chromosomes occur only once before both divisions.
DIFFERENCES
Germ cells (cells which Process occurs in Somatic cells
produce gametes)
To produce gametes for Purpose For growth and asexual
sexual reproduction reproduction
Occur Synapsis, crossing over and Do not occur
independent assortment of
chromosomes
Twice Number of times cytokinesis occurs Once

Four Number of daughter cells formed at the Two

end of process
Haploid Chromosome number of daughter cells Diploid
formed at the end of process
Daughter cells are all Genetic constitution of daughter cells Daughter cells are all
genetically different genetically the same as
their parent cell