European

History
Professor Eline Severs
Vrije Universiteit Brussel
2019-2020
Structure of today’s class
1. Course Introduction
• Why study history?
• The long 19th century – Modern Europe
• Modernity as a paradoxical concept
2. Course Practicalities
• Weekly topics and syllabus
• Study materials and exam
• Pol&Soc: language assistance
1.1. Why study history?
• To escape the present, nostalgia, a longing for “what is forever lost”
• Risk: the “pastness of the past” and overstating rupture/discontinuity

• To learn lessons from the past –how to deal with moral dilemma
• Risk: biases in what counts as the “great men and women of history”

• To identify structural laws – Teleology (Marx/Fukuyama)

• Risk: causality and the risk of overdetermination

• For political or ideological purposes

• Examples: a selection mechanism in higher education; nationalist projects;
Post-colonial ”reclaiming of the past”
• Risk: conflation science and politics
 So, there are many pitfalls, ….

why bother with studying history?

1.1. Why study history?

1. To understand change and how “the present” came to be

• Understand continuity and change
• Understand institutionalisation and revolution/transformation

“For every institution or value that disappears or is changed, another

remains the same” – T.C.W. Blanning (2001)
“Fake news”

Today…and in the
past

John Adams (1735-1826), 2nd US President:

“There has been more new error propagated by the press in
the last ten years than in a hundred years before 1798.”
1.1. Why study history?
2. Put the present day into perspective, to dismantle its “for granted”
(obvious, or natural) character
• To acknowledge the power struggles that are the basis of today’s institutions, ways
of life, etc.
• To question uniformity of European experience
• To “provincialise” Europe; to account for multiple paths/meanings of “modernity”

• Dipesh Chakrabarty (2008): critique on “historicism”

• Historicism = the idea that “to understand anything, it has to be seen both as a
unity and in its historical development”
• As if there is a singular, linear trajectory to modern civilisation
1.1. Why study history?
Historicism and the limitations of linear and singular
conceptions of history:

• Imaginary “waiting rooms”: One man’s present becomes

another man’s future

• Example: John Stuart Mill (1806-1873): On Liberty / On

Representative Government
• Proclaimed self-rule as the highest form of government
and yet argued against giving Indians or Africans self-rule.
• According to Mill, Indians or Africans were not yet
civilised enough to rule themselves. Some historical time
of development and civilisation (colonial rule and
education, to be precise) had to elapse before they could
be considered prepared for such a task.
• Mill’s historicist argument thus consigned Indians,
Africans and other ‘rude’ nations to an imaginary waiting-
room of history.
1.1. Why study history?
2. Put the present day into perspective, to dismantle its “for granted”
(obvious, or natural) character
• To question uniformity
• To “provincialise” Europe (or the European experience)
• To account for multiple paths/meanings of “modernity”

• Of particular relevance for the 19th century – “the birth of modern

Europe”
• A tendency to mask the heterogeneity of the “European” experience
• A tendency to attribute a singular meaning to “modernity” and a singular trajectory to
“modernity”
1.2. The long 19th Century (E.
Hobsbawn)
• 1789 the collapse of French absolutist monarch ------ the eruption of
the First World War in 1914
• From a society of orders (“estates”) to a society of classes
• Popular sovereignty and new modes of political legitimation
• Economic and social transformation
• Demographic explosion and mass migration
• Dramatic changes in the political landscape
• Birth of new European powers: unification of Italy and Germany
• The consolidation of nation-states and imperialism
• The incorporation of the masses in politics
1.2. 19th century modernity
The normative pulse of Europe’s narrative of “modernity”

• The 19th century is often conceived as the era that put the “Enlightenment
ideals” into practice.

• But…

“What is the Enlightenment? There is no official answer, because the era

named by Kant’s essay was never demarcated by opening and closing
ceremonies like the Olympics, nor are its tenets stipulated in an oath or creed.”
- Steven Pinker (2018)
1.2. 19th century modernity
• Steven Pinker (2018) (Canvas!)

• 18th century Enlightenment as a bridge-head between

• 17th century: scientific revolutions and the age of Reason
• 19th century political, socio-economic and cultural changes (industrialisation,
urbanisation, secularisation, democratisation,…)

• Associated with core values; linked to the “modern condition”:

• Reason: as opposed to divine conditions and imperatives
• Science: evidence-based judgments
• Humanism: universal ideals, such as equality, liberty that apply to all humans
• Progress: human-made systems (government, market, international institutions) for the betterment
of the human condition
• Peace: belief in our ability to design peaceful cohabitation
1.2. 19th century modernity
Henry Martyn Llolyd (2018) (Canvas!)

“On either side of the Atlantic, groups of public intellectuals have issued
a call to arms. The besieged citadel in need of defending, they say, is
the one that safeguards science, facts and evidence-based policy. The
white knights of progress – such as the psychologist Steven Pinker and
the neuroscientist Sam Harris - condemn the apparent resurgence of
passion, emotion and superstition in politics. The bedrock of modernity,
they tell us, is the human capacity to curb disruptive forces with cool-
headed reason. What we need is a reboot of the Enlightenment, now”.
1.2. 19th century modernity
• Henry Martyn Llolyd (2018)
• “White knights” present a selective reading of the Enlightenment
• Enlightenment thinkers, especially French intellectuals, placed a high value on
the role of sensibility, feeling and desire.

• Hegel (1770-1831): emphasis on rationality produces citizens who are

alienated, dispassionate and estranged from nature
• David Hume (1711-1776): morality is grounded in sense-experience: we
judge the good/beautiful directly and without need of reason
• 19th century romanticism, nationalism and fascism

“science can explain everything, but understands nothing”

1.2. Modernity, what’s in a name???

1. A category of historical periodisation

2. A quality of social experience – a heightened sensitivity to what is

unique about the present

3. An (incomplete) project
1.2.1. A category of historical
periodisation
The modernisation paradigm (sociology, 1960s)
• Modernisation = the transformation from a traditional, rural, agrarian society to a
secular, urban, industrial society
• Macro-structural changes:
• Rationalisation, industrialisation and urbanisation (from feudalism to capitalism)
• Birth of nation-states and institutions of democratisation (representative democracy,
modern bureaucracy, public education)

• Micro-individual changes – birth of “modern man”

• Reason-giving rather than tradition and habit
• Individualism, freedom and formal equality, meritocracy
• Faith in social, scientific and technological progress and human perfectability and rationality
1.2.2. A quality of social experience

“We are weighted down, every

moment, by the conception and
sensation of Time.”
– Charles Baudelaire
The Painter of Modern Life (1864)
1.2.2. A quality of social experience
Modernity
= the self-definition of a generation about its own technological
innovations, governance, and socio-economics
= a particular relationship to time, characterised by intense historical
discontinuity or rupture, openness to the novelty of the future, and a
heightened sensitivity to what is unique about the present

Modernus: “of today” (as opposed to something that has past)

1.2.2. A quality of social experience
Reinhart Koselleck (1979) Futures Past: On the Semantics of
Historical Time
• “der Moderne”, “les temps modernes”, “Neuzeit”, ”Nieuwe tijd”: a
temporal distinction, yet one claiming a distinctive breach with the
past

• A historical consciousness and its transformation into a general

model of social experience
• An ability to conceive of a future as distinct from the present and past

• 18th C. Enlightenment: a qualitative claim about the newness of the

times; valorising substantive changes
1.2.3. An (incomplete) project
• Modernity = a paradoxical form of temporality
• In a sociohistorical sense, all modernities grow old
• To remain “off today”, modernity needs to constantly re-establish itself in
relation to an ever-expanding past.

• As a result of such “updates”, modernity:

• Becomes less of a concept to describe a historical period
• Becomes more of a qualitative criterion to express a desired present/future

”Modernity is a qualitative, not a chronological, category”

- Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)
1.2.3. An (incomplete) project
As part of the project of “updating” our relationship to the past:

• There is a tendency to:

• Associate meanings of “modernity”, “modern man” with
normative values, ideals and beliefs
• Re-interpret the past as a logical and orderly path to a cherished
present (linear account of history)

• Define modernity in terms of “progress” or “development”

• “Progress” = defined in terms of the projection of certain people’s
present as other people’s futures (singular account of history)
1.2.3. An (incomplete) project
European History
= an attempt to:
• Describe the factual specificity of 19th Century Europe
• Account for the diversity of European experiences

• Showcase the limitations of determinist accounts of

“modernisation"

• Acknowledge the non-linear character of key evolutions and

trends
2. Course Practicalities
• Weekly topics and syllabus
• Study materials and exam
• Pol&Soc: language assistance
 Weekly topics
Week 22 12 February Introduction: European Modernity
Week 23 19 February Interpreting the French Revolution
Week 24 26 February The Restoration of Conservative Europe
Week 25 4 March Peace and War: International Relations
Week 26 11 March Nationalism
Week 27 18 March Industrialisation
European expansionism and imperialism: The Scramble from Below – Guest Lecture Prof.
Week 28 25 March
Benoît Henriet
Week 29 1 April The age of mass migration
Week 30 8 April Spring holiday – no class
Week 31 15 April Spring holiday – no class
Week 32 22 April Democratisation and the workers’ movement – Guest Lecture Prof. Samuel Hayat
Week 33 29 April Culture, religion and secularisation
Week 34 6 May The First World War
Week 35 13 May The road to the Second World War
Week 36 20 May Conclusion
 Weekly topics
Week 22 12 February Introduction: European Modernity
Week 23 19 February Interpreting the French Revolution
Week 24 26 February The Restoration of Conservative Europe
Week 25 4 March Peace and War: International Relations
Week 26 11 March Nationalism
Week 27 18 March Industrialisation
European expansionism and imperialism: The Scramble from Below – Guest Lecture Prof.
Week 28 25 March
Benoît Henriet
Week 29 1 April The age of mass migration
Week 30 8 April Spring holiday – no class
Week 31 15 April Spring holiday – no class
Week 32 22 April Democratisation and the workers’ movement – Guest Lecture Prof. Samuel Hayat
Week 33 29 April Culture, religion and secularisation
Week 34 6 May The First World War
Week 35 13 May The road to the Second World War
Week 36 20 May Conclusion
 Weekly topics
Week 22 12 February Introduction: European Modernity
Week 23 19 February Interpreting the French Revolution
Week 24 26 February The Restoration of Conservative Europe
Week 25 4 March Peace and War: International Relations
Week 26 11 March Nationalism
Week 27 18 March Industrialisation
European expansionism and imperialism: The Scramble from Below – Guest Lecture Prof.
Week 28 25 March
Benoît Henriet
Week 29 1 April The age of mass migration
Week 30 8 April Spring holiday – no class
Week 31 15 April Spring holiday – no class
Week 32 22 April Democratisation and the workers’ movement – Guest Lecture Prof. Samuel Hayat
Week 33 29 April Culture, religion and secularisation
Week 34 6 May The First World War
Week 35 13 May The road to the Second World War
Week 36 20 May Conclusion
Study materials
• Syllabus: indicates the weekly required reading
• Handbook: Oxford Illustrated History of Modern Europe,
T.C.W. Blanning (2001)
• Canvas: additional texts (see syllabus) and slides
• Your notes
Study materials
• Syllabus: indicates the weekly required reading
• Handbook: Oxford Illustrated History of Modern Europe,
T.C.W. Blanning (2001)
• Canvas: additional texts (see syllabus) and slides
• Your notes
 • Do the required readings prior to class.
• Take notes & ask questions.
• Use the slides (published after class), and
How to elaborate on them; using text materials and
notes
study? • Study your synthesis of materials

• Bottom line: the slides are the backbone of

the course; they structure what I consider
relevant and key!
 • Do the required readings prior to class.
• Take notes & ask questions.
• Use the slides (published after class), and
How to elaborate on them; using text materials and
notes
study? • Study your synthesis of materials

• Bottom line: the slides are the backbone of

the course; they structure what I consider
relevant and key!
 Rules of classroom conduct
Laptop multitasking hinders classroom
learning
“Laptops are commonplace in university
classrooms. We examined the effects of in-
class laptop use on student learning in a
simulated classroom.
We found that participants who multitasked
on a laptop during a lecture scored lower on
a test compared to those who did not
multitask, and participants who were in
direct view of a multitasking peer scored
lower on a test compared to those who were
not.
The results demonstrate that multitasking on
a laptop poses a significant distraction to
both users and fellow students and can be
detrimental to comprehension of lecture
content.” (Computers & Education, 62, 2013)
 Learning outcomes
Knowledge (reproduction):
o can recognise, name and elucidate the major historical facts and figures treated
within the framework of this course on 19th century Europe.
o can define and describe 19th century historical processes, such as
democratisation, industrialisation, urbanisation, and secularisation.
o can define the central concepts (such as democracy, imperialism, secularism,
nationalism) applied to describe 19th historical processes.
Insights:
Exam o can explain 19th century socio-economic, political and cultural events (such as, the
French Revolution), and developments (such as, the creation of mass politics, the
development of nationalism).
o can juxtapose different historical explanations for 19th century events (such as
imperialism) and processes (such as democratisation).
o can identify and clarify the connections between major 19th century processes,
such as, for instance, industrialisation and democratisation.
o can explain political cartoons and pamphlets published in the 19th century.
Scientific attitudes:
o draw on scientific evidence when describing, elucidating, juxtaposing and
explaining 19th century events and developments.
 Format
• 100 % written exam ; closed book exam
• Combination of “open questions” and “multiple choice
questions”
• Dictionaries allowed (but no thesaurus/encyclopaedia)

• Example questions:
Exam
• See slides for example “open questions”
• See update Canvas for example “multiple choice
questions” (mid-semester)

• Check exam schedule for time and place

• Final lecture: further details on exam + example questions

with answer key!
STUDY PROGRESS TALKS

Students who did not succeed for 60% of the enrolled credits of
the first semester course units, will receive an e-mail invitation
from Study Guidance

 Check your VUB mail address

 Contact study guidance yourself
guidance@vub.be  or  https://student.vub.be/en/study-guidance
STUDY PROGRESS TALKS
WHAT TO EXPECT?

• Open converstation with your learning path counsellor, no

reprimand
• Information regarding the study progress regulation
• What went well, what didn’t go so well?
• How can Study Guidance support you in your studies during the
2nd semester?
• Which actions can you take yourself?

Attendance is highly
recommended
2.3. Language support Pol&Soc
Language support module

• Not designed to improve your level of English proficiency

• ACTO language courses: https://www.vub.ac.be/acto/.

• Will help boost your critical and effective reading skills; allowing you to process
the assigned readings in a more time- and cost-efficient manner.
2.3. Language support Pol&Soc
The language module consists of the following elements:

1. During the first week of class, you can take ACTO’s language test

• After completing the online test by 10pm on Sunday 16th February at

the latest, you will receive an email the week after from ACTO with
some general feedback on the test.  You can access the test via the
following link: http://bit.ly/2y1Jgmb
• Mention “European History” after your last name!
2.3. Language support Pol&Soc
2. Organisation of critical reading sessions (Jianwei.Xu@vub.be)
• Week 24: Monday 24 February, room K.0.Auditorium.7 from 13.00 till 15.00
• Lecture “The Restoration of Conservative Europe”
• Study material: Roberts (pp. 11-39) in T.C.W. Blanning textbook; and Pittaluaga et al. (2015) – text
available on Canvas
• Week 26: Monday 09 March, room K.0.Auditorium.7 from 13.00 till 15.00
• Lecture “Nationalism”
• Study material: Leerssen, J. (2010) ‘The Politics of National Identity’, In: J. Leerssen. National Thought
in Europe. A Cultural History. Amsterdam, Amsterdam University Press, 2010, pp. 105-171.
• Week 29: Monday 30 March, room K.0.Auditorium.7 from 13.00 till 15.00
• Lecture “The Age of Mass migration”
• Study material: Pilbeam, P. (2001) From Orders to Classes: European Society in the Nineteenth
Century. In: Blanning, T.C.W. (Ed.), The Oxford Illustrated History of Modern Europe. Oxford: Oxford
University Press (pp. 94-119), and Hatton, T.J., and Williamson, J.G. (1994) ‘What Drove the Mass
Migrations from Europe in the Late Nineteenth Century?’ Population and Development Review, 20(3),
533-559. Text available on Canvas.
2.3. Language support Pol&Soc
3. Language accommodation@the exam
• All students may use a dictionary (not a thesaurus or encyclopaedia!). Pol&Soc students may, in
addition, answer the exam questions in Dutch. They may also request a Dutch translation of the
exam questions.

• Deadline: Students Pol&Soc should formulate a request for a Dutch version of the exam questions
before May, 1st (for the June exam session) or before July, 15th (for the August exam session).
Students should email the course professor (Eline.Severs@vub.be) and cc. the Faculty Secretariat (
faces@vub.be).

• No exceptions to these deadlines will be allowed. When students do not send their request on
time, they will not receive a Dutch translation of questions during the exam.
Questions to help you study
• Can we have objective historical knowledge?
• Is modernity a chronological or a qualitative category?
• What do we mean by modernity?
• Why do we speak of multiple modernities?
• Why study modern European history?
• …

Suggestions for further reading

• Trouillot, M.-R. (2015; 1962). Silencing the Past. Power and the Production of History. Boston:
Beacon Press.
• Bevir, M. (1994). ‘Objectivity in History,” History and Theory, 33(3), 328-344.