Types Of Transducers

Resistive Position Transducer:

The principle of the resistive position
transducer is that the physical variable
under measurement causes a resistance
change in the sensing element.
Resistive Position Transducer(cont’d)
A common requirement in industrial
measurement and control work is to be able to
sense the position of an object, or the distance
it has moved.

fig.(1) Resistive positive transducer, or displacement

transducer.
 
Resistive Position Transducer(cont’d)
One type of displacement transducer uses a
resistance element with a sliding contact or
wiper linked to the object being monitored.
Thus, the resistance between the slider and
one end of the resistance element depends on
the position of the object. Figure (1-a) shows
the construction of this type of transducer.
Figure b shows a typical method of use. The
output voltage depends on the wiper position
and therefore is a function of the shaft position.
This voltage may be applied to a voltmeter
calibrated in inches for visual display.
Resistive Position Transducer(cont’d)
Typical commercial units provide a choice
of maximum shaft strokes from an inch or
less to 5 feet or more. Deviation from
linearity of the resistance versus-distance
specification can be as low as 0.1% to
1.0%.
Consider Fig. (1-b). If the circuit is
unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a certain
V0 R2

fraction of VT, depending on the position of
VT R1  R 2
the wiper:
Resistive Position Transducer(cont’d)
In its application to resistive position
sensors, this equation shows that the
output voltage is directly proportional to
the position of the wiper, if the resistance
of the transducer is distributed uniformly
along the length of travel of the wiper, that
is, if the element is perfectly linear.
EXAMPLE 1
A displacement transducer with a shaft
stroke of 3.0 in. is applied in the circuit of
Fig. The total resistance of the
potentiometer is 5 k , and the applied
voltage VT=5.0V. When the wiper is 0.9 in.
from B, what is the value of the output
voltage V0?
Solution
0.9 in.
R2  x 5000  1500
3.0 in.

R2 1500
V0  VT  x 5.0 V  1.5 V
RT 5000
EXAMPLE 2
A resistive position transducer with a
resistance of 5000 and a shaft stroke of 5.0 in.
is used in the arrangement of Fig. (4).
Potentiometer R3R4 is also 5000 , and VT = 5.0
V. The initial position to be used as a reference
point is such that R1=R2 (i.e.. the shaft is at
midstroke). At the start of the test,
potentiometer R3R4 is adjusted so that the
bridge is balanced (VE=0). Assuming that the
object being monitored will move a maximum
distance of 0.5 in. toward A, what will the new
value of VE be?
Solution
If the wiper moves 0.5 in. toward A from
midstroke, it will be 3.0 in. from B.

3.0 in
R2   5000   300
5.0 in

R2 R4
VE  VR2  VE 4  VT  VT
R1  R 2 R3  R 4

 3000   2500 
  (5V )    (5V )  0.5 V
 5000   5000 
Resistive Position Transducer(cont’d)
This answer is a measure of the distance
and direction that the object has traveled.

Fig (2) Basic voltage divider and resistance bridge circuits

2-Strain Gauge
Transducers
The strain gauge is an example of a
passive transducer the; uses electrical
resistance variation in wires to sense the
strain produced by a force on the wires. It
is a very versatile detector and transducer
for measuring weight pressure mechanical
force, or displacement.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
 The construction of a bonded strain gauge Fig (3)
shows a fine-wire element looped back and forth on a
mounting plate, which is usually cemented to the
member undergoing stress. A tensile stress tens to
elongate the wire and thereby increase its length and
decrease its cross-sectional area. The combined effect
is an increase in resistance as seen from
Eq. (1)
L
R
A
(1)
Where
  = the specific resistance of the conductor material
in ohm
 L = the length of the conductor in meters
 A = the area of the conductor in square meters
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)

Fig (3) Resistive strain gauges; wire construction

Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
 As a consequence of strain two physical qualities are
of particular interest: (1) the change in gauge
resistance and (2) the change in length. The
relationship between these two variables expressed
as a ratio is called the gauge factor.
 K. Expressed mathematically as
R / R
K 
L / L
(2)
Where
 K = the gauge factor
 RR = the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
 = the change in initial resistance in ohms
 LL = the initial length in meters (without strain)
 = the change in initial length in meters
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
Note that theL term IL in the
denominator is the same as the unit strain
G. Therefore. Eq. (2) can be written as
R / R
K
G

(3)
Robert Hooke pointed out in the
seventeenth century that for many
common materials there is a constant, ratio
between stress and strain.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
Stress is defined as the internal force per
unit area. The stress equation is
F
S
A
(4)

Where
S = the stress in kilograms per Square
meter
F = the force in kilograms
A = the area in square meters
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
The constant of proportionality between stress
and strain for a linear stress-strain curve is known
as the modulus of elasticity of the material. E or
Young's modulus. Hooke's law is written as
S
E
(5) G
Where
E =Young's modulus in kilograms per square
meter
S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
G = the strain (no units)
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
For strain gauge applications, a' high
degree of sensitivity is very desirable. A
high gauge factor means a relatively large
resistance change for a given strain. Such a
change is more easily measured than a
small resistance change. Relatively small
changes in strain can be sensed.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
EXAMPLE 3
A resistant strain gauge with a gauge
factor of 2 is fastened to a steel member,
which is subjected to a strain of 1 X 10 -6. If
the original resistance value of the gauge is
130 . Calculate the change in resistance.
Solution

R / R R / R
K 
L / L G
R  KGR  (2) (1x10  6 ) (130)  260
Example 4
A round steel bar, 0.02 m in diameter and
0.40 m in length, is subjected to a tensile
force of 33.000 kg, where E=2x1010 kg/m2.
Calculate the elonga­tion, L, in meters.

Solution:
2 2
D  0.02 m 
A(       3.14 x 10  4 m 2
2  2 
S F/A
E 
G L / L
FL 33.000kg x 0.40m
L   4 2 10 2
0
AE (3.14 x 10 m ) (2 x 10 kg / m )
 2.1 x 10 3 m
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
Semiconductor strain gauges are often used in
high-output transducers as load cells. These
gauges are extremely sensitive, with gauge
factors from 50 to 200. They are however,
affected by temperature fluctuations and often
behave in a nonlinear manner. The strain
gauge is generally used as one arm of a
bridge. The simple arrangement shown in Fig.
(2-a) can be employed when temperature varia­
tions are not sufficient to affect accuracy
significantly, or in applications for which great
accuracy is not required.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
The strain gauge is generally used as one
arm of a bridge. The simple arrangement
shown in Fig. (4-a) can be employed when
temperature varia­tions are not sufficient to
affect accuracy significantly, or in
applications for which great accuracy is not
required.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
However, since gauge resistance is
affected by temperature, any change of
temperature will cause a change in the
bridge balance conditions. This effect can
cause an error in the strain measurement.
Thus, when temperature variation is
significant, or when un­usual accuracy is
required an arrangement such as that
illustrated in Fig. (4) may be used.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
Here two gauges of the same type are
mounted on the item being tested close
enough together that both are subjected to
the same temperature. Consequently, the
temperature will cause the same change of
resistance in the two, and the bridge
balance will not be affected by the
temperature. However one of the two
gauges is mounted so that its sensitive
direction is at right Angles to the direction
of the strain.
Strain Gauge
Transducers(cont’d)
 The resistance of this dummy gauge is not
affected by the deformation of the material.
Therefore, it acts like a passive resistance (such
as R3 of Fig. 4-b) with regard to the strain
measurement. Since only one gauge responds to
the strain, the strain causes bridge unbalance just
as in the case of the single gauge.

Fig (4) Basic gauge bridge circuits.