INTRODUCTION TO

LOGIC COURSE
BSCS 4A & 4B
BISU-CALAPE (ICT DEPARTMENT)
Let’s have a short
recap! 
BASIC CONCEPTS OF LOGIC
What is reasoning?
It is a form of thinking.
For example, making decisions, solving
problems and computing numbers

Remember: Reasoning is a form of thinking,

but not all thinking is reasoning.
What is the difference between
mere thinking and reasoning?
Thinking – thoughts simply come out into
our mind one after another

Reasoning – mind links thoughts together

What is the product of
reasoning?
Arguments
 Is a claim put forward and defended with
reasons
 A group of statements
 One is claimed to be true – conclusion
 Basis of your claim - premise
Could you still recall the
indicators for conclusion?
therefore
thus
hence
so
accordingly
it follows that
consequently
Could you still recall the
indicators for premise?
because
since
for
given that
as indicated by
as
in as much as
Identify the premise and the
conclusion in the following
statements.

The teacher does not allow late students to

come in the class. Therefore, you should come
on time.

He may not have good eyesight when he

reaches twenty because he often reads e-book.
What is the building
block/component of an argument?

Statement – is a group of concepts the

purpose of which is to assert something about

reality.

Always either true or false

Is it a statement or not?
Dogs are cats.

Remember: The process of connecting one

concept to another concept is judgment.
Is there a difference between
a statement and a sentence?
Sentence = group of words that expresses a
complete thought.
Statement = group of concepts that assert
something about reality.
Remember:
 Sentence are neither true nor false.
 Statements are either true or false.
How then are the statements
and sentences related?
Statements are usually expressed
through sentences.
Identify if is it a statement or
sentence.
I love you.
I love it!
What shall I do?
Close the window.
Is there a possibility that a sentence
contains more than one statement?

John Stellar is a teacher while Jane Oineza is a

student.
Can a two or more sentences
assert the same meaning?
Rizal loves Josephine.
Josephine is loved by Rizal.
Mahal ni Rizal si Juliet.
Can a statement be expressed as
a phrase or incomplete clause?
After earning a law degree and passing the board
exam, my friend started to work in the Supreme Court
two years ago.

My friend earned a law degree.

My friend passed the bar exam.
My friend started to work in the Supreme Court two
years ago.
Can a statement be expressed through
gestures or non-verbal means?
Crossed-eyebrows of a student while listening
to a class discussion.

He/She may assert something that she doesn’t

understand the topic.
Can we form a statement
without concepts?
What are concepts?
How do we form concepts?
Building blocks of a statement.
Representation of the “essence” of a thing
in the mind
Essence = characteristics common and
peculiar to all
How do we express our
concepts?
Term = a word or group of words that is used to
express a concept

Pen
President of the Philippines
Are concepts and terms
identical?
A concept can be expressed through different
terms.
 Concept dog, term dog, aso, iro, perro
(Spanish)
A term may express more than one concept.
 Term ball, concepts round object used in
games, formal social function for dancing
 MENTAL PRODUCT EXPRESSIO
OPERATION N
abstraction concept term
judgment statement sentence
reasoning argument argument
Can we create an argument
using one statement?

How many statements must a sentence

have in order to create an argument?

Is it necessary to contain the premise/s

and conclusion in a sentence only?
Does all sentences containing several
statements creates an argument?

Not every statement/passage that contain

several statements is an argument.
Is it an argument or not?
The brain is the master control center of the
body. It has three main divisions: the cerebrum,
the cerebellum and the brain stem.
After defeating the Chinese in the Opium War,
the British acquired Hong Kong as its colony. On
July 1, 1997, the United States ceased its control
of Hong Kong and turned it back to China.
Reports
Is it an argument or not?
I believe that many biologists and scientists are
wrong for saying that humans evolved from
lower animals like monkeys. It cannot be
possible. Humans did not come from animals
but were created by God in his own image and
likeness just as what the Book of Genesis has
narrated.
Unsupported Opinions
Is it an argument or not?
If the Philippines adopts a parliamentary
government, then we will not elect a President
anymore.
Conditional Statements (if-then relationship)

We will not elect a President anymore because

the Philippines adopted a parliamentary
government.
Is it an argument or not?
Rizal wrote “Noli” and “Fili” because he wanted
to expose the evils of the Spanish government.
Explanations

Any law that prohibits people from expressing

their views is unconstitutional because our
Constitution guarantees the freedom of speech.
Is it an argument or not?
EDSA 1 and 2 succeeded because the Church and
the military supported the revolution.

We haven’t paid our electric bills for three months.

So, our electricity was cut.

He caught AIDS because he got transfusion of

blood infected with HIV.
How to distinguish arguments
from explanations?
Ask a key question:
 Is the speaker’s intent is to prove or establish that
something is the case – to provide reason or
evidence for accepting a claim as true? –
ARGUMENT

 Is the speaker’s intent is to explain why something is

the case – to offer an account of why some event has
occurred? - EXPLANATION
How can we identify that a
statement conforms with the truth?
Truth refers to the conformity of the statements
to reality.
How can we identify that an
argument is logical?
Logic refers to the connection between the
premises and the conclusion of an argument.
How are we going to identify
the soundness of an argument?
Soundness is a property of an argument that is
achieved when both truth and logic are present
in the argument.
Remember:
In accepting an argument:
Are the premises of the argument true?
Is the argument logical (that is, its premises are relevant
and adequate to support the conclusion)?

An argument may be logical while one or more

premises is false.
The premises of an argument may all true but it is
illogical.
All Filipinos are Asians.
Bradd Pitt is a Filipino.
Therefore, Brad Pitt is an Asian.
All humans are mortal.
Socrates is human.
Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
Carabaos have horns.
Goats are not carabaos.
Therefore, goats do not have horns.
Add exercises!
UNDERSTANDING
THE PROBLEMS OF
LANGUAGE
How can we communicate to others
on what is going on in our mind?
 Language – essential tool in the art of logical and
effective reasoning.

 However, the relationship between thought and

language is not that simple.
What are the common
problems of language?
Vagueness
 A term is vague when it lacks a clear or precise
meaning.
Ambiguity
 A term is ambiguous when it has more than one
meaning.
VAGUENESS
Refers to lack of clarity in meaning.

There were few students who attended.

Remember: In order to remove vagueness, use
specific term.
There were thirty students who attended.
Can vagueness of language
be sometimes useful?
It may avoid hurting other’s feeling
 Her girlfriend did not look nice in the party last
night.
It let us speak with suitable caution and
avoid giving wrong information.
 I will be back tomorrow morning.
In general, is it okay to use
vague language?
Anyone dressing inappropriately will be
imprisoned.
Anyone acting immorally will be severely
punished.
Anyone speaking disloyally will be shot.
AMBIGUITY
When a term has more than one meaning
lie- to make a false statement, to be in horizontal
position, to exist or be found

Remember: A word is ambiguous when it is

not obvious which of its meanings is intended
in a situation in which the word is used.
Consider these sentences:
My friend saw a bat flying around the macopa
tree last night.

My friend saw a bat in the corner of the room.

There will be no increase in research funds

until the end of the year.
What are the types of
ambiguity?
Semantic Ambiguity – uncertainty about the
meaning of a particular word or phrase in the
sentence.
His pitch was high.
You must bring a compass tomorrow.
Our school has a big football team.
What are the types of
ambiguity?
Grammatical or Syntactic Ambiguity –
sentences can be interpreted with more than one
meaning due to the way words are put together.
Congressman Perez spoke against gender
discrimination in the House of Representatives.
In the House of Representatives, Congressman
Perez spoke against gender discrimination.
Can you give possible
interpretations of each sentence?
Dennis decided to quit smoking while going to
school.
Climbing the mango tree, I was surprised to see
the black cat.
Church sign: What is hell? Come to church next
Sunday and listen to our new parish priest.
VERBAL DISPUTES
When can verbal disputes
possibly happen?
When two people do not agree with each other
over a certain issue because they have
different notions of what a term means, they are
involved in verbal disputes.

Did the Philippines achieve economic

progress during Arroyo’s administration?
Did the Philippines achieve economic
progress during Arroyo’s
administration?
Yes, thinking that the GNP improved significantly
from the time Arroyo assumed presidency.
No, thinking that the rate of poverty and
unemployment did not go down but continue to
rise.
They understand economic progress in
different ways.
Remember:
In order to avoid verbal disputes, you
should ask yourself first:
 What do you mean by that?
 In what sense are you using the word?

Aside from verbal disputes, there are also

genuine disputes.
Are verbal disputes similar
with genuine disputes?
Verbal disputes = people have different
understanding of the terms
Genuine disputes = people have different
knowledge, information or belief about
something
Look at these sentences:
Person A: The Philippines achieved economic
progress because there are less unemployed
people in the country compared before.

Person B: The Philippines did not achieve

economic progress because the rate of
unemployment now is higher than before.
Beliefs are considered
genuine disputes.
Non-atheist – There is God.
Atheist – There is no God.

Remember: This kind of genuine disputes

cannot be settled by looking at the facts. How?
Simply respect others’ belief and opinions.
How can we prevent/eliminate verbal
disputes as well as misunderstanding due
to vagueness and ambiguity of languages?

Consider clear and accurate definition of the

terms used.
What is definition?
Why do we need to define such terms?

Define = Latin verb definere which means “to

enclose within limits”
What is the importance of
setting such limits?
If a term is used in any way, limited only by
one’s imagination, and its different uses are
equally acceptable, then such term loses its
significance.
We will know when to apply it or not to
apply it in a particular situation.
How do we give meaning to a
term?
Extension and Intension
Extension = refers to all the objects to which it
correctly applies
Planet
- Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn,
Uranus
How do we give meaning to a
term?
Extension and Intension
Intension = refers to the qualities or attributes
shared by all and only those objects to which
the term refers.
Vertebrate
- attributes of being an animal, having a
backbone
How do we give meaning to a
term?
Intension = Connotation
 To connote – to give certain attributes
Extension = Denotation
 To denote – refer to some objects
Remember: Connotation and Denotation in
logic is differently used in grammar.
 Drums Musical
Cymbals Extension Intension instrumen
Maraccas t played
Xylophon by striking
e “Percussion” or shaking
Narra Trunk,
Acacia Extension Intension roots,
Balete branches
and
Tree leaves
How about those terms connoting
different things to different people?
Cat
To a cat lover, cuddly and adorable
To someone who hates cat, obnoxious and
disgusting

Remember: To avoid these, restrict connotation to

conventional connotation- commonly used attributes
Does intension relates with
extension?
They are related in an inverse manner.
The greater the intension of a term, the
lesser will be its extension, vice versa.
 TERM INTENSION EXTENSION
Organism Living Mosquito, fish, reptile,
shrub, vine, acacia, balete
Plant Living, growing in the Shrub, vine, acacia, balete
ground, lacking locomotive
movement
tree Living, growing in the Acacia, balete
ground, lacking locomotive
movement, having a trunk
or main stem
Animal, mammal, feline, tiger
Increasing intension
Tiger, feline, mammal, animal
Decreasing intension
STRATEGIES AND
TYPES OF DEFINITION
How many parts does a
definition has?
Definiendum – word or group of words that is
supposed to be defined
Definiens – word or group of words that does
the defining
Definiens
Definiendum
Heavy
tarpaulin
waterproof fabric
WAYS OF DEFINING TERMS
Denotative Definition
Connotative Definition
Synonymous Definition
Etymological Definition
Operational Definition
Denotative Definition
Assign meaning to a term by giving the
members of the class which the
definiendum denotes.
Percussion – drum, cymbals, xylophone
Religion – Christianity, Islam, Hinduism
Enumerative Definition – naming members of
the class
Denotative Definition
Ostensive definition – pointing to the objects
which the term denotes.
Corsage – That lady in blue has a corsage on
her dress.
If a visitor from a foreign country wants to
learn what is “puno”, simply point out a tree.
Denotative Definition
Remember: Be aware of the limitations of
denotative definition.
Poetry – sonnet, haiku, ode
Connotative Definition
Defining a term by giving its intension or
connotation – giving qualities or attributes
Ex. Violin – stringed musical instrument,
played with a bow
Hexagon - a polygon with six sides.
genus differentia
What is genus?
What is differentia?
Genus – refers to the general class to which
the term belongs.
Dove - bird
Differentia – attributes that distinguish the
various subclasses within a genus.
Animal – Bird (being feathered, having a beak,
being warm-blooded
Synonymous Definition
Sometimes, we can understand what these
terms mean not by knowing their intensional or
extensional meaning but by their synonyms.
Ex. There are many mendicants at the park.
beggar
Synonymous Definition
Technical Jargons
Ex. Pacquiao is a southpaw boxer.
Southpaw = left-handed
Remember: Synonymous definition,
however, may not be useful and appropriate
if what is being sought is the intensional
meaning of a term.
Synonymous Definition
Remember: We must be careful of some
words which may have certain similarities
but are not synonymous with them.
Ex. Wisdom ≠ knowledge or understanding
Etymological Definition
Another way of making people understand what
a term means is by disclosing its ancestry or
etymology – where a certain word comes from.
Ex. License – Latin verb licere which means “to
be permitted”
Philosophy – Greek word philo (“love”) and
sophia (“wisdom”) = love of wisdom
Etymological Definition
Critical = Latin criticus, which, in turn, comes
from the Greek kritikos (“able to discern or
judge”)
Operational Definition
The last strategy for defining a term is by
specifying certain experimental procedures that
determine whether or not the word applies to a
certain thing.
Ex. A solution is an “acid” if and only if litmus
paper turns red when dipped into it.
Operational Definition
Ex. An object is “magnetic” if it attracts iron filings
that are put near the object.
A person is a “genius” when he/she scores over
140 on a standard IQ test.
Remember: This strategy of definition is
essential in situations where precision and
accuracy are very important (like in science).
Operational Definition
Remember: A term is applied only when a
specified test or operation yields a certain
result.
Remember: For a definition to be operational, it
must not only be specific than the ordinary
meaning of a term.
Operational Definition
Specific meaning: “a solution is an acid if and
only if it has a pH of less than 7”
Ordinary definition: “a solution is an acid if it
is a sour and corrosive compound”
KINDS OF
DEFINITION
KINDS OF DEFINITION
STIPULATIVE
LEXICAL
PRECISING
PERSUASIVE
Stipulative Definition
Deliberately assigns meaning to a term
When we want to introduce a new word in our
language, we use this kind of definition.
One of the common reasons is brought about
by the discoveries or inventions of new
things.
cyberspace, internet, webpage
Stipulative Definition
Secrecy is another reason for introducing new
words.
Stipulation may only be understood by the
sender and receiver.
Ex. Police authorities using secret codes
Stipulative Definition
Economy
In science, there are many advantages in introducing
a new and technical symbol defined to mean what
would otherwise requires a long sequence of word for
its expression.
Laser – a device that produces a very narrow intense
beam of light
Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
Stipulative Definition
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – main constituent
of the chromosomes of all living things
Stipulative Definition
We also give stipulative definition, when we
want to use old word in an entirely new way.
Ex. Mouse – handheld device for moving the
cursor without keying.
Surf – act of browsing over the internet
Lexical Definition
Used to convey the standard or
conventional usage of a word.
Dictionary definitions
Precising Definition
Serves to reduce the vagueness of a word by
further clarifying its meaning.
Inappropriate, intelligent, poor
Most of those who joined the rally yesterday in
Liwasang Bonifacio were poor people.
Precising Definition
The college scholarship will be given to poor
but deserving students.
Am I considered poor given that my father and
mother are only getting a combined income of
P15, 000 a month? Or is my classmate
considered a poor student the fact that her
parents’ monthly income is P20, 000 a month?
Precising Definition
Field of medicine
Law: Before a vital organ transplant can be
conducted, the donor must be dead.
When precisely is a person considered dead?
In US, death is considered to occur when the
brain stops functioning ass measured by an
electro-encephalograph.
Persuasive Definition
Serves to influence others’ feelings or beliefs
Abortion
Against: a ruthless killing of an innocent,
defenseless human being
In Favor: a means of safe and established
surgical procedure whereby a woman is
relieved of an unwanted burden
Persuasive Definition
As we observed, we notice the presence of
value-laden terms.
Lexical Definition of “abortion” – an act of
terminating pregnancy or of removing the fetus
from the woman’s womb.
Persuasive Definition
Rebel
For those who support: one who fights for the
freedom of the people
For those who condemn: one who sows
chaos and disorder in society
ERRORS OF
DEFINITION
Errors of Definition
Circular Definition
Too Broad Definition
Too Narrow Definition
Figurative Definition
Obscure Definition
Negative Definition
Circular Definition
When the term we are defining appears in
the definition

Ex. Hunger is the state of being hungry.

Vaccination is the act or process of
vaccinating people or animals.
Circular Definition
Some synonymous definition commits this
error.

Ex. A statement is a proposition

A proposition is a statement.
Too Broad Definition
When the definition includes non-members
(non-extension) of the term being defined.
The definition lacks essential characteristics
of the term.

Ex. A dog is a domestic animal.

A bird is a warm-blooded animal having wings.
Too Narrow Definition
When the definition is too narrow when the
definition excludes real members (or extension)
of the term defined.
The definition contains certain characteristics
that are not essential to a term.
Ex. A bird is a warm-blooded, feathered animal that
can fly.
A triangle is a polygon with three equal sides.
Figurative Definition
If it involves metaphors and tend to be poetic.

Ex. Love is a many splendored thing.

Problems are like hurricanes that come without
warning.
A secret is a treasure chest waiting to be opened.
Obscure Definition
If it unnecessarily uses technical and
unfamiliar terms.

A reptile is an air-breathing vertebrate

characterized by a completely ossified skeleton
with a single occipital condyle and a distinct
quadrate bone.
Negative Definition
If it conveys to us what the term is not
rather than what it is.

Ex. A scalene triangle is not equilateral or an

isosceles triangle.
A senator is not a congressman or a mayor.
Some words are intrinsically negative

Ex. An orphan is one who does not have a

parent.
Darkness means the absence of light.
Summary
Language is the most effective means to
convey our thoughts and arguments.
However, it can also be a source of
miscommunication and misunderstanding.
Summary
Vague = when it lacks precise or distinct meaning
Ambiguous = has more than one distinct
meaning
 Semantic ambiguity – when it is not clear what is
the intended meaning of a particular word
 Grammatical ambiguity – sentence can have
more than one meaning
Summary
To avoid the problems of vagueness and ambiguity, we
need to properly define our terms.
 Denotative method – provides concrete examples of the
extension of a term
 Connotative method – gives essential characteristics of a
term
 Synonymous method - gives a word that has the same
meaning with the term being defined
 Etymological method – provides the origin or ancestry of a
term
Summary
Definitions can be different types depending
on a particular purpose we have
 Stipulative – used to deliberately assigned
meaning to a word
 Lexical – used to give the conventional or
standard usage of a term
 Precising – given to further clarify a term that is
vague in a particular context
Summary
Definitions can be different types depending
on a particular purpose we have
 Persuasive – used to influence others’ feeling or
beliefs