Unit-IV:

Topic-Human Skeleton System

Year-I, Semester –I
Class Generic BSN-(Session2019-
2023)
By
Muhammad Shahid
MSN, BSN, DPBCN, RN, BSc
Program Coordinator
School Of Nursing
Kharadar General Hospital Karachi

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 Objectives
At the end of this lecture learner will be able to :
1. Define skeletal system and related terms
2. Discuss the structure, types and functions of bone
3. List the functions of the skeletal system
4. Identify the bones of axial & appendicular skeleton
5. Describe the various markings on the surface of bones
6. Describe the bones of:
I. The skull
II. Vertebral column
III. The rib cage or chest
IV. Pectoral girdle and upper extremity
V. Pelvic girdle and lower extremity male and female.
7. Briefly discuss the difference between male pelvis & female pelvis.
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 Skeletal System
Skeletal system is the system of bones, associated
cartilages and joints of human body. Together these
structures form the human skeleton. Skeleton can be
defined as the hard framework of human body around
which the entire body is built.

Components of Human Skeleton:

Human skeleton is composed of three main

components:

1. Bones

2. Associated cartilages

3. Joints.

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 Terms used when describing skeleton
S.NO Term Definition / Meaning
1 Articulation A joint between two or more bones
2 Bony Sinus A hollow cavity in a bone
3 Border The edge of flat bone
4 Condyle Smooth rounded projection of a bone that forms a part of joint
5 Ramus A branch
6 Foramen A hole in a structure
7 Fossa A hollow or depression
8 Meatus Tube shaped cavity in bone
9 Epicondyle Above the condyle
10 Spine A Sharp process of bone
11 Tubercle A small, rounded smooth process
12 Tuberosity A medium size, rough process
13 Trochanter A large rough process
14 Septum A partition separating two cavities
15 Notch A indention or dent
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 Divisions of Human Skeleton
Human skeleton can be divided into two divisions.
1. Axial Skeleton:
a. Axial skeleton forms the axis of human body.
b. It consists of Skull, vertebral column and
thoracic cage.
c. It consists of 80 bones and is composed of six
parts:
1. Skull 22 bones
2. Auditory ossicles 6 bones
3. Vertebral 26 bones
4. Sternum 1 bone
5. Ribs 24 bones
6. Hyoid bone 1 bone

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 Appendicular Skeleton:
It consists of Shoulder girdle, Skeleton
of upper limb, Pelvic girdle and
Skeleton of lower limb. Total no of
bones are 126.
1. Upper limb 64 bones.
2. Lower limb 62 bones.

Total no of bones are 206.

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 Types of Bone
Types on the basis of shape:
1. Long bones:
a. Mainly found in limbs.
b. Each long bone has a shaft or diaphysis. 2
extremities epiphysis.
2. Short bones:
a. Found in carpels of hand and tarsals of foot.
b. Mainly composed of cancellous bone tissue.
e.g. carpals of hand & tarsals of foot.
3. Flat bones:
a. Consist of two layers dense bone tissue with
middle layer of spongy bone tissue. E.g. Skull,
Innominate bone, scapula.
4. Irregular bones:
a. Bones of vertebra and face
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 Types of Bone
5. Sesamoid bone:
a. Developed in tendons of muscles and found under a joint. e.g patella (knee cap)
Types on the basis of region:
1. Bones of axial skeleton,
2. Bones of appendicular skeleton.
Types on the basis of structure:
3. Compact bone.
4. spongy bone.
Types According to Microscopic approach:
5. Fibrous bone,
6. Lamellar bone

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 Functions of human skeleton:
Human skeleton performs some important functions that are necessary for survival of
human beings.

1. STRENGTH, SUPPORT AND SHAPE: It gives strength, support and shape to the
body. Without a hard and rigid skeletal system, human body cannot stand upright, and
it will become just a bag of soft tissues without any proper shape

2. PROTECTION OF DELICATE ORGANS: In areas like the rib cage and skull, the
skeleton protects inner soft but vital organs like heart and brain from external shocks.
Any damage to these organs can prove fatal, therefore protective function of skeleton is
very important
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 Functions of Human Skeleton:
3.LEVERAGE FOR MOVEMENTS: Bones of the human skeleton in all
parts of body provide attachment to the muscles. These muscles provide
motor power for producing movements of body parts. In these movements the
parts of skeleton acts like levers of different types thus producing movements
according to the needs of the human body.

4. PRODUCTION OF RED BLOOD CELLS: Bones like the sternum, and

heads of tibia have hemopoeitic activity (blood cells production). These are
the sites of production of new blood cells.
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 Skull Bones
Cranium: 8 in numbers.
1. Frontal 1 bone
2. Occipital 1 bone
3. Parietal 2 bone
4. Temporal 2 bone
5. Ethmoid 1 bone
6. Sphenoid 1 bone

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 Cranium Bones
1. Occipital Bone:
a. Also known as occiput.
b. One bone located at back and lower parts of cranium.
c. Squamous part lies behind foramen magnum.
d. Basal part lies in front of foramen magnum and fused with sphenoid bone.
e. Forman magnum is a hole in occiput through which passes the spinal cord.
f. On each side of occipital are 2 projections called condyles which articulate with 1 st
cranial vertebra, acts to make a condylar joint.
2. Parietal Bone:
a. Two in numbers
b. Located at top and sides of cranium.
c. They articulate with each other at sagittal suture with frontal bone at coronal suture
and with occipital at lambdoidal suture and with 2 temporal bones at squamous suture.
d. Inner surface is smooth and flat and has grooves for blood vessels.

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 Cranium Bones
3. Frontal bone:
a. One in number.
b. Forms forehead and roof of the orbital cavity.
c. The supra orbital margins forms arch of the orbit.
4. Temporal bone:
d. Two in numbers.
e. Located on each side of head.
f. Squamous part is thin , fan-shaped which articulate with the parietal bones.
g. Form the squamous part projects the zygomatic process which articulates
with malar bone or zygomatic bone & below this process is the external
auditory meatus.
h. Below the meatus is the styloid process projecting downwords.

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 Cranium Bones
f. Joints of Temporal Bone. Temporomandibular: joint with mandible.
g. Mastoid part contains mastoid process (the region behind the ear).
It contains air sinuses.
h. Petrous part forms base of the skull and contains organs, the organ
of hearing and balance.
5. Ethmoid Bone:
a. One in number.
b. Located at the roof of nose.
c. Contain ethmoid sinuses.
d. Perpendicular plate form part of nasal septum.
e. Cribriform plate form roof of the nasal cavity.

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 Cranium Bones
6. Sphenoid Bone:
a. One in number.
b. Located at the base of the skull between frontal and occipital
bones.
c. It is bat shaped bone with 2 greater and lesser wings.
d. On the body of a sphenoid is a depression called sella
turcica or hypophyseal fossa in which rests the pituitary
gland.
e. It contains sinuses.
Suture of the Skull:
a. Suture are immovable joints between the bones of cranium.
1. Coronal Suture: B/W frontal and Parietal bone.
2. Sagittal Suture: B/W two parietal bones.
3. Lambdoidal Suture: B/W Parietal and Occipital bone.
4. Squamous Suture: Temporal and Parietal bone.

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 Fontanelles
Are spaces between the skull bones of an
infant.
1. Anterior Fontanelle:
a. Between frontal and parietal bones.
b. It is diamond shaped.
c. Closed at 12 to 18 months age.
2. Posterior Fontanelle:
d. Between occipital bone and parietal
bones.
e. Close at 2-3 months after birth.
Sinuses: contains air and are present in
ethmoid, sphenoid, maxillary
and frontal bones.

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 Facial bones:
Total 14 bones and are irregular.
1. Nasal Bone (2): Form the bridge of nose.
2. Lacrimal Bone (2): Contains the tear ductus, located in inner angle of eye.
3. Malar/Zygomatic/Cheeks bones (2):
4. Superior Maxillary bones(2): Form the upper jaw & contains maxillary sinuses.
5. Inferior turbinate/ conchae Bones (2): Project from superior maxillary into nasal
cavity.
6. Plate / Platine bones (2): forms roof of mouth.
7. Vomer Bone(1): form the nasal septum.
8. Inferior Maxillary or Mandible Bone (1):
a. Form lower Jaw.
b. Divides into body, ramus, angle, cricoid process & condyles.
c. Articulate with temporal bone to form temporomandibular joint.

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Facial bones:

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 Thorax
• It is made up of bone and
cartilage enclosing a cone shaped
cavity.
• The thorax cage is made of :
1- (12) Thoracic Vertebrae
(posteriorly)
2- (01) Sternum (Anteriorly)
3- (12 ) pairs of ribs (Laterally)
1- Sternum:
a. One in number
b. Dagger shaped flat bone
c. Divides into three parts

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 3 Parts of Sternum bone.
1. Manubrium or Handle:
a. This articulate with the clavicle and 1st pair of ribs
laterally.
2. Glandular or Body:
a. Gives attachment for 2nd -7th pairs of ribs.
3. Ensiform or Xiphoid Process:
a. Tip of sternum, diaphragm, linea alba and rectus
b. abdominus are attached to it.
Joints of Sternum:
1. Sterno-clavicular Joint:
a. Articulates with ribs and cartilaginous joint.
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 Ribs
a. There are 12 pairs of ribs.
b. Flat bones
c. Each rib is posteriorly attached to 12 thoracic vertebrae. The head of
the ribs articulate with the body of the vertebrae and tubercle of ribs
articulate with transverse process of vertebrae.
d. First 7 pairs are called true ribs , they are attached by the costal
cartilage to the sternum posteriorly.
e. 8th , 9th and 10th pairs are called false ribs as they are attached to the
cartilage of the ribs above.
f. 11th and 12th pairs of ribs are attached posteriorly but not anteriorly
and are called floating ribs.

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 Characteristics of Ribs
a. Rib is a long bone with flattened shaft and
2 extremities.
1. Vertebral Extremity:
a. Has head, neck and tube.
2. The costal Extremity:
a. Has depression for attachment of costal cartilage.
3. Shaft:
a. Has outer & inner surface & upper and lower
border.
4. Costal Cartilage:
a. Are bars of hyaline cartilage which connect
ribs to sternum.
5. Intercostal Spaces:
a. Spaces between ribs & are filled with costal
cartilage.
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 Vertebral Colum
Is made of 33 bones irregular bones called vertebrae.
The first 24 are movable and the last nine are fixed.
Region Name of Numbers
vertebrae

1-Neck Cervical 7

2-Thorax Thoracic 12

3-lumbar Lumbar 5

4- Sacrum Sacral 5- fused together

5- Coccyx Coccygeal 4- fused together

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 Characteristics of a typical vertebrae
a. Anteriorly it has a solid part called body.
b. Posteriorly is a ring of bone called neural
arch.
c. Inside neural arch is a space called neural
canal through which spinal cord passes.
d. Neural arch ends posteriorly in spine
e. Laterally projects 2 transverse process for
articulation with vertebrae above and
vertebrae below.

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 Cervical Vertebrae- 7 in numbers
Except for the first 2, each
cervical vertebrae has:
a. Small oblong body.
b. A large neural arch.
c. A divided spine (Except for
no-7.)
d. A foramen in each
transverse process for the
passage vertebral arties.

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 Atlas
• Is 1st cervical vertebrae.
• Except for the 1st two , the other
vertebrae are typical.
• Only 1st two are a typical.
a. It supports the head.
b. It is ring of bone with no body.
c. Has large facets for articulation
with occiput to form condylar
joint.
d. Has small transverse process.
e. Has a facets for articulation the
odontoid peg of axis to form pivot
joint.
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 Axis
• Is the 2nd a typical cervical
vertebrae.
a. Has large facets for articulation
with atlas.
b. Has odontoid peg for
articulation with atlas.

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Atlas and Axis

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 Thoracic Vertebrae-12 in numbers
a. Has a heart shaped body with 2
facets on each side for
articulation with the heads to
ribs.
b. A small neural arch.
c. A long –downward pointing
spine.
d. A long transverse process with
facets for articulation with the
tubercle of 2 ribs.

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 Lumbar vertebrae-5 in numbers
a. Has a large kidney
shaped body.
b. A board flat spine.
c. 5th lumbar vertebrae
articulate with the
SACRUM forming
lumbo-sacral joint.

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 Sacral Vertebrae: 5 fused together
a. Forming one bone sacrum.
b. Triangular shaped bone forming the
back of the pelvis.
c. Anterior surface is concave.
d. Apex articulates with the coccyx
forming SACRO-COCCYGEAL joint
articulates with 5th lumbar vertebrae.
e. Anterior surface is called promontory
of sacrum.
f. Sides articulates with the innominate
bones from SACRO ILIAC joint.
JOINTS MADE BY SACRUM:
1. Sacro iliac Joint.
2. Lumbosacral Joint
3. Sacro Coccygeal joint. Prepared by Muhammad Shahid 31
 Coccygeal Vertebrae-4 fused together
a. Four fused together forming 1 bone coccyx.
b. Articulates with sacrum to form Sacro-Coccygeal joint.
c. Also called tail bone.
JOINTS OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN:
a. They are cartilaginous joints.
b. The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are replaced by
pads of fibro cartilage called intervertebral disc.
CURVES OF VERTEBRAL COLUMN:
1. Cervical curve Forward:
2. Thoracic Curve Backward
3. Lumbar Curve Forward
4. Pelvic Curve Backward

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 Functions of Vertebral Column
1. It supports the head.
2. Forms the posterior boundaries for thoracic abdominal and pelvic
cavities.
3. Supports the trunk in an erect position.
4. Gives surfaces for attachment for muscles.
5. Gives movement.
I. Flexion: Bending forward.
II. Extension: bending backward.
III. Lateral Flexion: Bending side ways.
IV. Rotation: turning right to left.
6. To absorb shock .e.g. running or jumping.
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 Bones of Upper Limb
S.N
Region Name of Bone Numbers
O
1 Shoulder Girdle Scapula/ Clavicle 1-1
2 Upper Arm Humerous 1
3 Fore Arm Ulna / Radius 1-1
4 Wrist Carpals 8
5 Hand Metacarpals 5
6 Fingers Phalanges 14

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 Shoulder Girdle
• Bones of the upper limbs are attached to the
skeleton of the trunk by the shoulder girdle.
• It is made of two bones: Clavicle & Scapula.
1: Clavicle:
a. One in number.
b. Long bone lying at the roof of neck.
c. Has an S-shaped shaft.
d. Sternal extremity articulate with sternum
manubrium.
e. Acromial extremity articulates with the
acromion process of scapula.
JOINTS OF CLAVICLE:
1. Sterno-clavicular joint.
2. Acromio-Clavicular Joint.Prepared by Muhammad Shahid 35
 Scapula
a. One in number.
a. Flat bone lying over the ribs on the upper back.
b. Also known as shoulder blade.
c. Triangular shaped, has 2 surfaces, 3 angles and 3 borders.
d. Anterior surface: consist of scapular fossa lying against ribs.
e. Posterior Surface: Divided by spine into supra-spinous fossa
above & infra –spinous fossa below.
f. Spine ends in acromion process which articulates with clavicle.
g. Angles: Superior angle, Inferior angle, lateral angle.
h. Lateral angle contains Glenoid cavity into which head of
humerous fits.
i. Borders:
I. Medial or Vertebral Border
II. Lateral or Axillary border
III. Superior or Superior border ends in coracoid process.
Joints Of Scapula:
1. Acromio-Clavicular Joint.
2. Humero-Scapular Joint (Shoulder joint)

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 Humerus
a. One in number
b. Long bone of upper limbs extending from shoulder to elbow.
c. Upper extremity:
I. Head is 1/3rd sphere and articulate with glenoid cavity of scapula.
II. Narrow neck.
III. Greater tuberosity (laterally below neck).
IV. Lesser tuberosity anteriorly.
V. Bicipital groove between the tuberosities for tendon of biceps muscles.
d. Shaft:
VI. Long and thin.
VII. Rounded superiorly. Flattened inferiorly.
VIII. Deltoid tuberosity laterally for insertion of deltoid muscles.
IX. Spinal Groove: posteriorly for radial nerve .

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 Humerus
Lower extremity:
a. Broad and flat.
b. Has trochlea medially articulation with ulna.
c. Has capitilum laterally for articulation with radius.
d. Medial and lateral epicondyles.
e. Coronoid fossa anteriorly receives coronoid
process of ulna when arm is flexed.
f. Olecranon fossa posteriorly receives olecranon
process of ulna when arm is extended.
Joints of Humerus:
1. Humero-Scapular joint
2. Humero- ulnar joint
3. Humero- Radial Elbow joint

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 Ulna
a. One in each arm.
b. Long middle bone of fore arm.
Upper extremity:
I. Strong and thin.
II. Articulate with humerus to form part of elbow joint.
III. Olecranon process projects upwards posteriorly and fits into olecranon fossa of humerus
when elbow is straight.
IV. Coronoid process projects anteriorly and fits into coronoid fossa of humerus when elbow
is bent.
V. Trochlear notch between olecranon and coronoid process.
VI. Radial notch is an articulating surface for head of radius.
Shaft:
I. Thinner at lower end.
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 Ulna
Lower extremity:
a. Small rounded head articulates with radius to
form inferior radio-ulnar joint.
b. Styloid process projects downwards
posteriorly.
Joints of Ulna:
1. Humero-ulnar joint (elbow joint).
2. Superior-radio-ulnar
3. Inferior –radio-ulnar joint.

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 Radius
a. Bone in each fore arm.
b. Long bone, lateral bone of fore arm.
c. Upper extremity:
I. Button shaped head with shallow upper surface for articulation with capitilum of humerus.
II. Sides of head articulates with radial notch of ulna.
III. Radial tuberosity lies medially below neck for insertion of biceps muscles.
Shaft: Narrow above and wide below.
Lower extremity:
IV. Square in shape.
V. Inferior surface articulates with navicular and lunate bone of wrist.
VI. Medial surface articulates with head of ulna.
VII. Styloid process laterally projecting downwards.
Joints of Radius:
1.Humero-Radial (Elbow joint)
2. Superior Radio-ulnar
3. Inferior Radio-ulnar
4. Radio-Carpal (Wrist Joint) Prepared by Muhammad Shahid 41
 Bones of Hand
Carpals:
a. Eight bones in each wrist.
b. Short bones arranged in two rows of 4 bones.
Upper Row:
1. Scaphoid or Navicular (boat shaped).
2. Lunate (Crescent Shaped).
3. Triquetral (3 sided).
4. Pisiform (Pea Shaped).
Lower Row:
5. Trapezium (4 sided).
6. Trapezoid (4 sided).
7. Capitate
8. Hamate (Hammer Shaped).
Joints of Carpals:
1.Radiocarpal (Wrist Joint)
2. Carpometacarpal:

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 Metacarpals
a. Five long bones in each hand.
b. Each has 2 extremities and 1 shaft.
c. Proximal extremity: articulate with distal row of carpals.
d. Distal extremity: articulate with proximal row of phalanges.
Joints of Metacarpals:
1. Crapo-metacarpal joint.
2. Metacarpo-pharyngeal joint.
Phalanges:
a. 14 in each side or ( hand).
b. Long bone forming fingers.
c. 3 in each finger and 2 in each thumb.

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 Innominate Bone
a. Forms the pelvic girdle.
b. Pelvic girdle is made up of: Innominate bone
(2).Sacrum bone (1).
c. Also known as hip bone.
d. Situated at each side of pelvic girdle & unite
anteriorly at a joint called Symphysis pubis.
e. It is a kind of irregular/flat bone made by the
fusion of 3 bones:
1. Ilium. 2. Ischium. 3. Pubis.
f. All three bones meet at a cup-shaped cavity
acetabulum into which fits head of
the femur to form femuro-acetabular joint or
Hip joint.

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 Innominate Bone
1-Ilium:
a. Makes the upper part of innominate .
b. It is flat bone.
c. Contains 2 surfaces, crest and articulating surface for sacrum to form sacro-iliac joint.
d. Crest is curved and gives surfaces for the attachment of abdominal muscles.
e. Crest ends in front of anterior superior iliac supine.
f. Posteriorly is posterior inferior iliac spine.
g. Below the articulating surfaces for sacrum lies the greater sciatic notch through which
passes sciatic nerve from pelvis to thigh.
2-Pubis:
h. Irregular bone.
i. Consist of a body & 2 RAMI.
j. Body is square & lies next to the crest of pubis.
k. The pubis bone meet anteriorly at symphysis pubis.

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 Continue..
3-Ischium:
a. Irregular bone.
b. The thickest and strongest portion of innominate.
c. The ischial tuberosity lies below at lowest point on which the trunk rests in the sitting position.
Obturator Foramen:
a. A large hole below the acetabulum.
b. Filled with a membrane & through this pass vessels and nerves from the pelvis to the thigh.
Acetabulum:
c. Deep cup-shaped cavity formed at the union of 3 bones.
d. Pubis form the frontal part.
e. Ilium the upper part.
f. Ischium the back part.
The pelvis:
g. It is divided into 2 parts by the brim of the pelvis.
h. The greater of false pelvis is above the brim.
i. The lesser or true pelvis is below the brim.
j. The female pelvis is wider than male for child birth.
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 Bones of lower limb
S. No Name of region Name of bone Quantity/ number

1 Pelvis Innominate 1

2 Thigh Femur 1

3 Knee Patella 1

4 Leg Tibia- fibula 1-1 each

5 Ankle Tarsals 7

6 Foot Metatarsals 5

7 Toes Phalanges 14

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 Pelvic Girdle:
a. Is made up of 2 innominate bones fused
together.
Joints of Pelvic Girdle:
1. Sacro-Iliac Joint
2. Symphysis-pubis joint
3. Femuro- acetabular joint (Hip joint)
Femur:
a. Long bone, one in number.
b. Also known as thigh bone.
c. It is longest and strongest bone of the
body.
d. Extends from hip to thigh.
e. Has a shaft and 2 extremites.

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 Femur Bone
Upper extremity:
I. 2/3rd sphere head with small
depression for attachment of teres
ligament.
II. Long bone
III. Greater trochanter (laterally).
IV. Lesser trochanter (medially).
V. Inner trochanter line (anteriorly).
Shaft:
VI. Cylindrical and smooth.
VII. Curved forwards.
VIII. Linea aspera a rough line posteriorly
for attachment of muscles.
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 Femur bone continue
Lower Extremity:
I. Wide with 2 condyles for articulation with tibia.
II. Patella surface anteriorly for articulation with patella.
III. Inter condylar notch posteriorly between 2 condyles.
IV. Popliteal surface above the notch posteriorly.
Joints of Femur:
1. Femuro-acetabular or hip joint.
2. Femuro- Tibial or knee joint.
3. Articulates with patella.

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 Patella:
a. One in number.
b. Sesamoid bone developed in tendons of
quadriceps muscles.
c. Also known as knee cap.
d. Lies in front of knee joint.
e. Apex point downwards.
f. Anterior surface is rough.
g. Posterior surface is smooth.
h. Articulates with lower extremity of femur but
does not take part in knee joint.

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 Tibia
a. One in number.
b. Long bone.
c. Also called shin bone.
d. Medial leg bone.
e. Has 2 extremities and shaft.
1.Upper extremity:
I. Wide and flat.
II. Medial & lateral condyles for articulation with femur.
III. Semi lunar cartilages lies on condyles.
IV. Spine is between condyles.
V. Tubercle (anteriorly) for attachment of patella tendon.
VI. Facet for articulation with fibula laterally.
VII. Popliteal notch posteriorly.

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 Tibia
2-Shaft:
I. Triangular.
II. Crest Anteriorly.
III. Soleal line posteriorly.
3-Lower extremity:
IV. Medial malleolus.
V. Articulating surface for Talus inferiorly.
VI. Articulating surface for fibula.
Joints of Tibia:
1. Femuro-Tibial Joint. (Knee joint)
2. Superior-Tibio-Fibular joint.
3. Inferior-Tibio-Fibular joint.
4. Tibio-Tarsal joint.
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 Fibula
a. One in number.
b. Long bone, lateral bone of leg.
c. Has shaft and 2 extremities.
d. Head of fibula articulates with the lateral condyle of tibia forming superior
Tibio-Fibular joint.
e. Lower extremity of fibula articulates with tibia.
Joints of fibula:
1. Superior-Tibio-Fibular joint
2. Inferior-Tibio- fibular joint.
3. Fibulo-Tarsal Ankle joint.

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 Tarsals: Seven in numbers.
1. Calcaneum. (1)
2. Talus. (1)
3. Navicular. (1)
4. Cuneiform (3)
5. Cuboid: (1) Short bone of foot.
1- Calcaneum or Oscalis:
a. Largest of the tarsal.
b. Lies posteriorly forming heal.
c. Articulates with talus superiorly.
d. Articulates anteriorly with cuboid.

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 Conti…
2-Talus
a. Central and highest point of foot.
b. Supports Tibia & articulates with Calcaneum inferiorly.
3- Navicular:
c. Bat shaped bone.
d. Lies medially, talus behind & and 3 cuneiform infront.
4- Cuboid:
e. One in number.

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 Metatarsals
a. 5 in numbers.
b. Long bones of foot.
Joints of metatarsals.
1. Tarso-metatarsal.
2. Metatarso-pharyngeal
Phalanges:
a. 14 in numbers.
b. Long bone forming toe.
Joints of Phalanges:
1. Metatarso-pharyngeal
2. Inter-pharyngeal
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 Joints of Upper limb
1. Acromio-clavicular joint.
2. Sterno-Clavicular joint. Shoulder
Shoulder
Joint
Joint
3. Humero-Scapular Joint.
4. Humero-Ulnar Joint. Elbow
5. Humero-Radial Joint. joint

6. Superior-Radio-Ulnar Joint.
7. Inferior-Radio-Ulnar joint.
8. Radio-Carpal (Wrist Joint).
9. Carpo-metacarpal Joint.

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 Joints of Lower limb
1- Femuro-Accetabular joint (Hip joint).
2- Femuro-Tibial Joint (Knee joint).
3- Superior-Tibio-Fibular Joint.
4-Inferior-Tibio-Fibular joint.
5- Tibio-Tarsal
Shoulder
6- Fibulo-Tarsal Joint

7- Tarso-Metatarsal joint.
8- Meta- Tarso- Pharyngeal joint
9- Inter-Pharyngeal joint.

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 Types of Bone Fracture
1. Avulsion fracture – a muscle or ligament pulls on the bone, fracturing it.
2. Comminuted fracture – the bone is shattered into many pieces.
3. Compression (crush) fracture – generally occurs in the spongy bone in the spine. For
example, the front portion of a vertebra in the spine may collapse due to osteoporosis.
4. Fracture dislocation – a joint becomes dislocated, and one of the bones of the joint has a
fracture.
5. Greenstick fracture – the bone partly fractures on one side, but does not break
completely because the rest of the bone can bend. This is more common among children,
whose bones are softer and more elastic.
6. Hairline fracture – a partial fracture of the bone. Sometimes this type of fracture is harder to
detect with routine x-rays.
7. Impacted fracture – when the bone is fractured, one fragment of bone goes into
another.
.

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 Continue
8. Intraarticular fracture: Where the break extends into the surface of a joint.
9. Longitudinal fracture: The break is along the length of the bone.
10. Oblique fracture – a fracture that is diagonal to a bone’s long axis.
11. Pathological fracture – when an underlying disease or condition has already
weakened the bone, resulting in a fracture.
12.Spiral fracture – a fracture where at least one part of the bone has been
twisted.
13.Stress fracture – more common among athletes. A bone breaks because of
repeated stresses and strains.
14.Torus (buckle) fracture – bone deforms but does not crack. More common in
children. It is painful but stable.
15.Transverse fracture – a straight break right across a bone.
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Shape of Chest and Curvature of
Spinal cord

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 References
Anne Waugh, et al. (2006). Ross & Wilson: Anatomy and Physiology in
Health and Illness, 11th edition.

All, John E. Guyton, Arthur C. (2011) Guyton and Hall textbook of

medical physiology /Philadelphia, PA : Saunders/Elsevier.

Jenkins, Gail W. Tortora, Gerard J. (2013) Anatomy and physiology :from

science to life Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons.

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