Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES,
AND SURFACES
1. Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes

2. Conventional Measuring Instruments and Gages
3. Surfaces
4. Measurement of Surfaces
5. Effect of Manufacturing Processes
©2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. M P Groover, Principles of Modern Manufacturing 6e
Dimensions and Tolerances
 Factors that determine the performance of a

manufactured product, other than mechanical and
physical properties, include :
 Dimensions - linear or angular sizes of a
component specified on the part drawing
 Tolerances - allowable variations from the
specified part dimensions that are permitted in
manufacturing
Dimensions (ANSI Y14.5M‑1982)
 A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in

appropriate units of measure and indicated on a drawing
and in other documents along with lines, symbols, and
notes to define the size or geometric characteristic, or
both, of a part or part feature"
 The dimension indicates the part size desired by the
designer, if the part could be made with no errors or
variations in the fabrication process
Tolerances (ANSI Y14.5M‑1982):
 A tolerance is "the total amount by which a specific

dimension is permitted to vary
 The tolerance is the difference between the maximum
and minimum limits"
 Variations occur in any manufacturing process,
which are manifested as variations in part size
 Tolerances are used to define the limits of the
allowed variation
Bilateral Tolerance
Variation is permitted in both

positive and negative
directions from the nominal
dimension
 Possible for a bilateral
tolerance to be unbalanced
 Ex: 2.500 +0.010, -0.005
Unilateral Tolerance
Variation from the

specified dimension is
permitted in only one
direction
 Either positive or
negative, but not both
Limit Dimensions
Permissible variation in a part

feature size consists of the
maximum and minimum
dimensions allowed
Measurement
 Procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared

to a known standard, using an accepted and
consistent system of units
 Measurement provides a numerical value of the
quantity of interest, within certain limits of accuracy
and precision
Accuracy and Precision
 Accuracy - the degree to which a measured value

agrees with the true value of the quantity of interest
 A measurement procedure is accurate when it avoids
systematic errors (positive or negative deviations that
are consistent from one measurement to the next)
 Precision - the degree of repeatability in the
measurement process
 Good precision means that random errors in the
measurement procedure are minimized
Conventional Measuring
Instruments and Gages
 Precision gage blocks

 Measuring instruments for linear dimensions
 Comparative instruments
 Fixed gages
 Angular measurements
Precision Gage Blocks
 Standards against which other dimensional

measuring instruments and gages are compared
 Usually square or rectangular blocks
 Surfaces are finished to be dimensionally accurate
and parallel to very close tolerances and are
polished to a mirror finish
 Precision gage blocks are available in certain
standard sizes or in sets, the latter containing a
variety of different sized blocks
Measurement of Linear
Dimensions
 Measuring instruments are divided into two types:
 Graduated measuring devices include a set of
markings on a linear or angular scale to which the
object's feature of interest can be compared for
measurement
 Nongraduated measuring devices have no scale
and are used to compare dimensions or to transfer
a dimension for measurement by a graduated
device
Micrometer
External micrometer, standard one‑inch size with digital

readout (photo courtesy of L. S. Starret Co.)
Calipers
Two sizes of outside calipers (photo courtesy of L. S.

Starret Co.)
Mechanical Gages:
Dial Indicators
 Mechanical gages are designed to mechanically
magnify the deviation to permit observation
 Most common instrument in this category is the dial
indicator, which converts and amplifies the linear
movement of a contact pointer into rotation of a dial
 The dial is graduated in small units such as 0.01 mm
or 0.001 inch
 Applications: measuring straightness, flatness,
parallelism, squareness, roundness, and runout
Dial Indicator
Dial Indicator showing dial

and graduated face (photo
courtesy of L. S. Starrett Co.)
Dial Indicator Setup to Measure
Runout
As part is rotated about its center, variations in outside
surface relative to center are indicated on the dial
Electronic Gages
 Family of measuring and gaging instruments based

on transducers capable of converting a linear
displacement into an electrical signal
 Electrical signal is amplified and transformed into
suitable data format such as a digital readout
 Applications of electronic gages have grown
rapidly in recent years, driven by advances in
microprocessor technology, and are gradually
replacing many of the conventional devices
GO/NO‑GO gages
 So-named because one gage limit allows the part to be

inserted while the other limit does not
 GO limit - used to check the dimension at its
maximum material condition
 Minimum size for internal feature such as a hole
 Maximum size for external feature such as an
outside diameter
 NO‑GO limit - used to inspect the minimum material
condition of the dimension in question
Snap Gage
Gaging the diameter of a part (difference in height of GO

and NO‑GO gage buttons is exaggerated)
Plug Gage
Gaging of a hole diameter (difference in diameters of

GO and NO-GO plugs is exaggerated)
Measurement of Angles
Bevel protractor
with Vernier scale
(courtesy L. S.
Starrett Co.)
Surfaces
 Nominal surface – designer’s intended surface contour

of part, defined by lines in the engineering drawing
 Nominal surfaces appear as absolutely straight
lines, ideal circles, round holes, and other edges
and surfaces that are geometrically perfect
 Actual surfaces of a part are determined by the
manufacturing processes used to make them
 Variety of processes result in wide variations in
surface characteristics
Why Surfaces are Important
 Aesthetic reasons
 Surfaces affect safety
 Friction and wear depend on surface characteristics
 Surfaces affect mechanical and physical properties
 Assembly of parts is affected by their surfaces
 Smooth surfaces make better electrical contacts
Surface Technology
 Concerned with:
 Defining the characteristics of a surface
 Surface texture
 Surface integrity
 Relationship between manufacturing processes
and characteristics of resulting surface
Metallic Part Surface
Magnified cross section of a typical metallic part surface
Surface Texture
 The topography and geometric features of the

surface
 When highly magnified, the surface is anything but
straight and smooth
 It has roughness, waviness, and flaws
 It also possesses a pattern and/or direction
resulting from the mechanical process that
produced it
Surface Texture
Repetitive and/or
random deviations
from the nominal
surface of an
object
Four Elements of Surface
Texture
1. Roughness - small, finely‑spaced deviations from

nominal surface
 Determined by material characteristics and
processes that formed the surface
2. Waviness - deviations of much larger spacing
 Waviness deviations occur due to work
deflection, vibration, tooling, and similar factors
 Roughness is superimposed on waviness
Texture
3. Lay - predominant direction or pattern of the surface

texture
Texture
4. Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on the

surface
 Includes cracks, scratches, inclusions, and similar
defects in the surface
 Although some flaws relate to surface texture, they
also affect surface integrity
Surface Roughness and
Surface Finish
 Surface roughness - a measurable characteristic
based on roughness deviations
 Surface finish - a more subjective term denoting
smoothness and general quality of a surface
 In popular usage, surface finish is often used as a
synonym for surface roughness
 Both terms are within the scope of surface texture
Surface Roughness
Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over

a specified surface length
Surface Roughness Equation
 Arithmetic average (AA) based on absolute values of

deviations, and is referred to as average roughness
Lm
y
Ra = ∫ Lm
dx
0
where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation

from nominal surface (absolute value); and Lm =
specified distance over which the surface deviations
are measured
Alternative Surface Roughness
Equation
 Approximation of previous equation is perhaps easier
to comprehend
n
yi
Ra  
i 1 n
where Ra has same meaning as above; yi = vertical

deviations (absolute value) identified by subscript i;
and n = number of deviations included in Lm
Cutoff Length
 A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness

may get included
 To deal with this problem, a parameter called the
cutoff length is used as a filter to separate waviness
from roughness deviations
 Cutoff length is a sampling distance along the surface
 A sampling distance shorter than the waviness
eliminates waviness deviations and only includes
roughness deviations
Surface Roughness Specification
Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings: (a)

the symbol, and (b) symbol with identification labels
Surface Integrity
 Surface texture alone does not completely describe a

surface
 There may be metallurgical changes in the altered
layer beneath the surface that can have a significant
effect on a material's mechanical properties
 Surface integrity is the study and control of this
subsurface layer and the changes in it that occur
during processing which may influence the
performance of the finished part or product
Surface Changes Caused by
Processing
 Surface changes are caused by the application of
various forms of energy during processing
 Example: Mechanical energy is the most common
form in manufacturing
 Processes include forging, extrusion, and
machining
 Although its primary function is to change
geometry of work part, mechanical energy can
also cause residual stresses, work hardening, and
cracks in the surface layers
Measurement of Surfaces
 Two parameters of interest:

 Surface texture - geometry of the surface,
commonly measured as surface roughness
 Surface roughness
 Surface integrity - deals with the material
characteristics immediately beneath the surface and
the changes to this subsurface that resulted from
the processes that created it
Measurement of Surface
Roughness
 Three methods to measure surface roughness:
1. Subjective comparison with standard test
surfaces
 Fingernail test
2. Stylus electronic instruments
3. Optical techniques
Stylus Instruments
 Similar to the fingernail test, but more scientific

 In these electronic devices, a cone‑shaped diamond
stylus is traversed across test surface at slow speed
 As the stylus head is traversed horizontally, it also
moves vertically to follow the surface deviations
 The vertical movement is converted into an electronic
signal that can be displayed as
 Profile of the actual surface
 Average roughness value
Stylus Traversing Surface
Stylus head traverses horizontally across surface, while

stylus moves vertically to follow surface profile
Tolerances and Manufacturing
Processes
 Some manufacturing processes are inherently more
accurate than others
 Most machining processes are quite accurate,
capable of tolerances = 0.05 mm ( 0.002 in.) or
better
 Sand castings are generally inaccurate, and
tolerances of 10 to 20 times those used for
machined parts must be specified
Surfaces and Manufacturing
Processes
 Some processes are inherently capable of producing
better surfaces than others
 In general, processing cost increases with
improvement in surface finish because additional
operations and more time are usually required to
obtain increasingly better surfaces
 Processes noted for providing superior finishes
include honing, lapping, polishing, and
superfinishing

Dimensions, Tolerances, and Surfaces

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DIMENSIONS, TOLERANCES,

1. Dimensions, Tolerances, and Related Attributes

 Factors that determine the performance of a

 A dimension is "a numerical value expressed in

 A tolerance is "the total amount by which a specific

Variation is permitted in both

Variation from the

Permissible variation in a part

 Procedure in which an unknown quantity is compared

 Accuracy - the degree to which a measured value

 Precision gage blocks

 Standards against which other dimensional

External micrometer, standard one‑inch size with digital

Two sizes of outside calipers (photo courtesy of L. S.

Dial Indicator showing dial

 Family of measuring and gaging instruments based

 So-named because one gage limit allows the part to be

Gaging the diameter of a part (difference in height of GO

Gaging of a hole diameter (difference in diameters of

 Nominal surface – designer’s intended surface contour

Magnified cross section of a typical metallic part surface

 The topography and geometric features of the

1. Roughness - small, finely‑spaced deviations from

3. Lay - predominant direction or pattern of the surface

4. Flaws - irregularities that occur occasionally on the

Average of vertical deviations from nominal surface over

 Arithmetic average (AA) based on absolute values of

where Ra = average roughness; y = vertical deviation

where Ra has same meaning as above; yi = vertical

 A problem with the Ra computation is that waviness

Surface texture symbols in engineering drawings: (a)

 Surface texture alone does not completely describe a

 Two parameters of interest:

 Similar to the fingernail test, but more scientific

Stylus head traverses horizontally across surface, while

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