GD and Tolerancing

Engineering Graphics
Out line
Introduction
Projections
Dimensioning
Tolerancing
Fits and Limits
Working Drawing
Engineering Graphics
Introduction
Drawing
Drawing is a graphic representation of a real thing, an idea, or a proposed design.
Drawing is the process of portraying an object, scene, or form of decorative or symbolic
meaning through lines, shapes, values, and textures in one or more colors.
This process involves moving a pointed instrument (pencil, etc. across a smooth surface,
connecting lines in order to create shapes and other objects).
A Few Things About Drawing
The most fundamental of art – everything bases from this!
People of all ages draw : small children with crayons and students doodling's in
notebooks – people make careers out of this!
Prehistoric times – hieroglyphics on walls serve as art and language.
All drawings have a common purpose – to give form to an idea and express the artist’s
feelings about it.
Engineering Graphics ( Cont…)
Introduction (Cont…)
Painting
One of the oldest and most important of the visual arts.
An artist creates a painting by arranging the art elements on a flat surface in ways that
are sometimes visually appealing, sometimes shocking or thought-provoking.
Subjects depend on the time and place in which they live.
Paintings were found thousands of years ago in caves throughout the world.
Introduction ( Conti…)
Engineering graphics is a set of rules and guidelines that help you create an engineering
drawing.
An engineering drawing is a drawing or a set of drawings that communicates an idea,

design, schematic, or model.
Engineering drawings come in many forms. Each engineering field has its own type of
engineering drawings.
For example, Mechanical engineers draw parts and assemblies that need to be
manufactured.
Graphics is a visual communication language that include images, text and numeric
information. Graphics communications using engineering drawings and models is a clear
and a precise language with definite rules that must be mastered in order to be successful
in engineering design. Graphic communications are used in every phase of engineering
design starting from concept illustration all the way to the manufacturing phase.
An engineering drawing, (Technical drawing ),(Projections) is a graphical representation

of a part, assembly, system or structure and it can produced using freehand , mechanical
tool or computer method.
Working drawings are the set of technical drawings used during the manufacturing phase
of a part. They contain all the information needed to manufacture and assemble a
product.
Codes and Standards
A code is a set of specification for the analysis, design, manufacture , and construction
of some thing.
A standard is a set of specification for parts, materials, or process intended to achieve

uniformity , efficiency and specific quality.
Examples of the organizations that establish standards and codes:

ISO,AISI,SAE.ASTM,ASMEANSI, DIN
Types of Drawing
Engineering Graphics (Cont…)
Projections
Projection - from two Latin words:
Pro, meaning “forward”
Jacere, meaning “to throw”
The literal meaning is “thrown forward, drawn at right angles”.
Projection –image or the act of obtaining an image of an object.

In technical drawing –we call it a view.
Method – we use projection method to obtain a view of an object.

Engineering Graphics (Cont…)
Classification of Projections
Orthographic of Projections
Greek word Orthos (= Straight, rectangular, upright) + Graphe (=Drawn, written ).
Technical method to represent 3D object in 2D (plane).
It is a technical drawing in which different views of an object are projected on different

reference planes observing perpendicular to respective reference plane.
The method of representing the exact form of an object in two or more views.
It reveals the width, depth and height of an object.
Angles of Orthographic Projection
On a technical drawing, a plane is an imaginary flat surface that has no thickness.
Orthographic projection involves the use of three different Reference planes.
Horizontal Plane (HP),
Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )
Side Or Profile Plane ( PP)

view of an object is projected and drawn on each plane.
And Different Views are: Front View (FV), Top View (TV) and Side View (SV)
FV is a view projected on VP.
TV is a view projected on HP.
SV is a view projected on PP.

Angles of Orthographic Projection ( Conti…)
First angle projection is used in European countries.
Third angle projection is used in the US and Canada.
Second and fourth angle projection is not used in any country.
First-angle projection
Front view = vertical plane.

Top view = horizontal plane.
Left side view = profile plane.
In first angle projection,
The Front View is located above the Top View.
The Left-side View is to the right of the Front View.

Angles of Orthographic Projection( Conti…)
Angles of Orthographic Projection ( Conti…)
First angle projection
Third angle projection

Projection system symbols and recommended proportions

Engineering Graphics ( Conti…)
Orthographic of Projections ( Conti…)
Important terms of orthographic projections
1 ) Planes
2 ) Pattern of planes & Pattern of views
3 ) Methods of drawing Orthographic Projections

Orthographic of Projections (Conti…)
The projection theory is used to graphically represent 3-D objects on 2-D media (paper,
computer screen).
The projection theory is based on two variables:
1) Line of sight
2) Plane of projection (image plane or picture plane)

Plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane which the image is created.
The image is produced by connecting the points where the LOS pierce the projection
plane.
Orthographic projection is a parallel projection technique in which the parallel lines of sight
are perpendicular to the projection plane.
Orthographic view
Orthographic view depends on relative position of the object to the line of sight.
Orthographic view
Orthographic projection technique can produce either :
1. Multiview drawing that each view show an object in two dimensions.
2. Axonometric drawing that show all three dimensions of an object in one view.
Both drawing types are used in technical drawing for communication.
Axonometric (Isometric) Drawing

Advantage - Easy to understand
Disadvantage - Shape and angle distortion

Types of Axonometric
Multiview Drawing
Advantage - It represents accurate shape and size.
Disadvantage -Require practice in writing and reading.
Example Multiview drawing (2-view drawing)

The Glass Box Approach / Concepts

The Glass Box Approach / Concepts ( Conti…)

First and Third Angle Projections

Drawing Sheet
Orientation of drawing sheet

1 ) Planes
Isometric Projection
In engineering, one plane drawings are extensively used in addition to the orthographic
views of an object to give the best understanding. So the practice of drawing the objects
in one plane, pictorial view, from the orthographic views is essential. There are three
methods to draw the pictorial drawings i.e.
1 . Perspective Projection 2. Oblique Projection 3. Axonometric Projection
1 . Perspective Projection
Perspective projection is mostly used by the artists, professional designers and architects to
show the views as it appears to the human eye. It appears to converge at a point, called
vanishing point.
Perspective projection is not used by engineer for manufacturing of parts, because:
1) It is difficult to create.
2) It does not reveal exact shape and size.

Isometric Projection ( Conti…)
2. Oblique projection is mostly used by the mathematicians and furniture
manufacturers. They impart third dimension at an angle to the two dimensional images, to
show the depth.
3. Axonometric projection differs from the other one plane views on the basis of rotation
angle along one or more of its axes relative to the plane of projection. It is extensively used
in mechanical engineering to show the blocks, machine parts, assemblies etc. It shows an
image of an object from a skew direction.
DIMENSIONING
Dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and

indicated on drawing using lines, symbols, notes etc…
A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and

used to define the size, location, orientation, form or other geometric characteristics of a
part.
As far as possible, dimensions should be placed outside the view.

Dimensions should be taken from visible outlines rather than from hidden lines.
Each feature should be dimensioned once on a drawing .
Dimensions should be placed on the view or section that relates most clearly to
the corresponding features.
Each drawing should use the same unit for all dimensions but without unit symbol.
Dimensions using in Drawings can be categorized as:
Size dimensions define size of features (Radius, Diameter, Length, Thickness, Width
etc…
Location dimensions –define location of a part features such as hole.
Matting Dimensions –applied to parts that fit together. This implies a certain degree of
accuracy , and in the case of shafts witch fits in to holes.
Dimension Lines and Extension Lines

Extension Lines are used to indicate the extremities of a dimension. They are generally
drawn up to 1mm from the outline of the object.
Dimension Lines are used to label a particular dimension .They have one or more
arrowheads.
Dimensions are usually placed between extension lines. But when there is no enough
room to accommodate the dimension either the dimension value or the dimension lines
can be located the outside extension lines.
Use of projection and dimensioning lines
Types of Dimensions
Dimensions may be divided in to three ; Linear Dimensions, Angular Dimensions, and

Leader Dimensions.
Linear Dimensions – They are either vertical or horizontal to the dimensioning plane.
Angular Dimensions – They are usually specified in decimal degrees.(E.g. 27.5º) Also
they can be specified using degrees, minutes and seconds.( E.g. ,27º30´ or 0º15´40´´)
Leader Dimensions – They are usually used to specify a Diameter or Radius where a
leader line is used to point towards the feature being dimensioned.
Dimensioning Methods
Dimensions should be indicated on a drawing according to any one of the following
methods;
(a) Aligned system
The aligned method means the dimensions are read in alignment with the dimension lines
or side of the part, some read horizontally and others read vertically.
Aligned dimensions are placed so the horizontal dimensions can be read from the bottom
of the drawing sheet and the vertical dimensions can be read from the right side of the
drawing sheet. This method is commonly used in architectural and structural drafting.
(b) Uni-directional system
The unidirectional method means all dimensions are read in the same direction.
Uni-directional dimensions are placed so they can be read from the bottom of the drawing
sheet. This method is commonly used in mechanical drafting.
unidirectional, where the dimensions are drawn parallel to the bottom of the drawing, that
is horizontal.
Dimensioning Methods ( Conti…)
a) Unidirectional b) Aligned
Dimensioning Methods ( Conti…)
Arrangement of dimensions
The arrangement of dimensions on a drawing must indicate clearly the design purpose.
The following are the ways of arranging the dimensions.
Chains dimensions
Chains of single dimensions should be used only where the possible accumulation of
tolerances does not endanger the functional requirement of the part.
Parallel / Base line / Stacked Dimensioning
In parallel dimensioning, a number of dimension lines, parallel to one another and

spaced-out are used. This method is used where a number of dimensions have a common
datum feature.
Over all (Ordinate) Dimensioning
When several dimensions make up an over all length, the dimension can be shown
outside these component dimensions. When specify an over all dimension, one or more
non critical component dimensions must be omitted.
Auxiliary ( Reference ) Dimensions
When all the component dimensions must be specified , an overall length may still be
specified as an auxiliary dimension ( also called as Reference dimension ).
Auxiliary dimensions are never tolerance, and are shown in brackets.

Dimensioning Symbols
Tolerances
Introduction
No two parts can be produced with identical measurements by any manufacturing proces
s.
In any production process, regardless of how well it is designed or how carefully it is ma
intained, a certain amount of natural variability will always exist.
These natural variations are random in nature and are the cumulative effect of many sma
ll, essentially uncontrollable causes.
Usually, variability arises from improperly adjusted machines, operator error, tool wear,
and / or defective raw materials.
Such characteristic variability is generally large when compared to the natural variability
.
This variability, which is not a part of random or chance cause pattern, is referred to as ‘
assignable causes’.
Characteristic variations can be attributed to assignable causes that can easily be identifi
ed and controlled.
If the process can be kept under control, that is, all the assignable and controllable cause
s of variations have been eliminated or controlled, the size variations will be well within
the prescribed limits.
Some variability in dimension within certain limits must be tolerated during manufactur
e, however precise the process may be.
The permissible level of tolerance depends on the functional requirements, which cannot
be compromised.
No component can be manufactured precisely to a given dimension; it can only be made
to lie between two limits, upper (maximum) and lower (minimum).
The designer has to suggest these tolerance limits, which are acceptable for each of the d
imensions used to define shape and form, and ensure satisfactory operation in service.
When the tolerance allowed is sufficiently greater than the process variation, no difficult
y arises.
The difference between the upper and lower limits is termed permissive tolerance.
For example, a shaft has to be manufactured to a diameter of 40 ± 0.02 mm.
This means that the shaft, which has a basic size of 40 mm, will be acceptable if its diam
eter lies anywhere between the limits of sizes, that is, an upper limit of 40.02mm
and a lower limit of 39.98 mm. Then permissive tolerance is equal to 40.02 − 39.98 = 0.
04.
Tolerances
Tolerance can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of a dimension or other m
easured value from the specified value.
It can also be defined as the total variation permitted in the size of a dimension, and is the alge
braic difference between the upper and lower acceptable dimensions. It is an absolute value.
The basic purpose of providing tolerances is to permit dimensional variations in the manufact
ure of components, adhering to the performance criterion as established by the specification a
nd design.
If high performance is the sole criterion, then functional requirements dictate the specification
of tolerance limits; otherwise, the choice of setting tolerance, to a limited extent, may be influ
enced and determined by factors such as methods of tooling and available manufacturing equi
pment.
The industry follows certain approved accuracy standards, such as ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) and ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), to manufacture
different parts.
Classification of Tolerance
Tolerance can be classified under the following categories:
1. Unilateral tolerance
2. Bilateral tolerance
3. Compound tolerance
4. Geometric tolerance
Unilateral Tolerance
When the tolerance distribution is only on one side of the basic size, it is known as unila
teral tolerance.
In other words, tolerance limits lie wholly on one side of the basic size, either above or b
elow it.
Example
Classification of Tolerance ( Cont…)
Bilateral Tolerance
When the tolerance distribution lies on either side of the basic size, it is known as bilater
al tolerance.
In other words, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on both sides of the basic siz
e but may not be necessarily equally disposed about it.
Example:
Classification of Tolerance ( Cont…)
Compound Tolerance
When tolerance is determined by established tolerances on more than one dimension, it i
s known as compound tolerance.
For example, tolerance for the dimension R is determined by the combined effects of tol
erance on 40 mm dimension, on 60º, and on 20 mm dimension.
The tolerance obtained for dimension R is known as compound tolerance
Geometric Tolerance
Geometric tolerances are used to indicate the relationship of one part of an object with a
nother.
Geometric tolerances state the maximum allowable variations of a form or its position
from the perfect geometry implied on the drawing. However, it is impossible to produce
perfect forms, it may be necessary to specify the amount of variation permitted.
Classifications of Geometric Tolerances

Form tolerances: Form tolerances are a group of geometric tolerances applied to individ
ual features. They limit the amount of error in the shape of a feature and are independent
tolerances. Form tolerances as such do not require locating dimensions. These include st
raightness, circularity, flatness, and cylindricity.
Orientation tolerances: Orientation tolerances are a type of geometric tolerances used to
limit the direction or orientation of a feature in relation to other features. These are relate
d tolerances. Perpendicularity, parallelism, and angularity fall into this category.
Classifications of Geometric Tolerances ( Conti…)
Positional tolerances: Positional tolerances are a group of geometric tolerances that cont
rols the extent of deviation of the location of a feature from its true position. This is a thr
ee‐dimensional geometric tolerance comprising position, symmetry, and concentricity.
Location tolerances determine concentricity, symmetry and position, with position being
the most common.
Run out tolerances are used only on cylindrical parts. They are circular run out and total
run out.
Geometric Tolerances
Comparison of ISO and ANSI Symbols
Maximum and Minimum Metal Conditions
Let us consider a shaft having a dimension of 40 ± 0.05 mm.
The maximum metal limit (MML) of the shaft will have a dimension of 40.05 mm becau
se at this higher limit, the shaft will have the maximum possible amount of metal.
The shaft will have the least possible amount of metal at a lower limit of 39.95 mm, and
this limit of the shaft is known as minimum or least metal limit (LML).
Similarly, consider a hole having a dimension of 45 ± 0.05 mm.
The hole will have a maximum possible amount of metal at a lower limit of 44.95 mm a
nd the lower limit of the hole is designated as MML.
For example, when a hole is drilled in a component, minimum amount of material is rem
oved at the lower limit size of the hole. This lower limit of the hole is known as MML.
The higher limit of the hole will be the LML. At a high limit of 45.05 mm, the hole will
have the least possible amount of metal.
Maximum and Minimum Metal Conditions ( Conti…)
Fits
Manufactured parts are required to mate with one another during assembly.
The relationship between the two mating parts that are to be assembled, that is, the hole
and the shaft, with respect to the difference in their dimensions before assembly is called
a fit.
An ideal fit is required for proper functioning of the mating parts.
Three basic types of fits can be identified, depending on the actual limits of the hole or s
haft:
1.Clearance fit
2. Interference fit
3.Transition fit
Basic Types of Fits ( Conti…)
Clearance fit: The largest permissible diameter of the shaft is smaller than the diameter of th
e smallest hole.
This type of fit always provides clearance. Small clearances are provided for a precise fi
t that can easily be assembled without the assistance of tools. When relative motions are
required, large clearances can be provided, for example, a shaft rotating in a bush.
In case of clearance fit, the difference between the sizes is always positive.
Clearance fit ( Cont…)
Interference fit: The minimum permissible diameter of the shaft exceeds the maximum allo
wable diameter of the hole.
This type of fit always provides interference. Interference fit is a form of a tight fit. Tool
s are required for the precise assembly of two parts with an interference fit.
When two mating parts are assembled with an interference fit, it will be an almost perma
nent assembly, that is, the parts will not come apart or move during use. To assemble the
parts with interference, heating or cooling may be required.
In an interference fit, the difference between the sizes is always negative.
Interference fit ( Conti…)
Transition fit
A pure transition fit occurs when the shaft and hole are exactly the same size. This fit is
theoretically the boundary between clearance and interference and is practically impossible
to achieve, but by selective assembly or careful machining methods, it can be approached
within very fine limits.
Allowance
Allowance: An allowance is the intentional difference between the maximum material li
mits, that is, LLH and HLS (minimum clearance or maximum interference) of the two m
ating parts. It is the prescribed difference between the dimensions of the mating parts to
obtain the desired type of fit.
Allowance may be positive or negative. Positive allowance indicates a clearance fit, and
an interference fit is indicated by a negative allowance.
Allowance = LLH − HLS
Clearance fit = Occurs when two tolerance mating parts will always leave a space or
clearance when assembled.
Interference fit = Occurs when two tolerance mating parts will always interfere when
assembled.
Transition fit = Occurs when two tolerance mating parts are sometimes and interference fit
and sometimes clearance fit when assembled.
Selective Assembly
If allowances and tolerances are specified properly, mating parts are completely
interchangeable. But for close fits, it is necessary to specify very small allowances and
tolerances, and the cost will be very high. To avoid this expense, either manual or
computer-controlled selective assembly is often used.
In selective assembly, all parts are inspected and classified into several grades according
to actual sizes.
Basic Hole System
Basic Hole System: Minimum hole diameter is taken as the basis. Lower deviation for
the hole is equal to zero. Dmax is prescribed according to the specified tolerance.
Reamers, broaches, and other standard tools are often used to produce holes, and
standard plug gages are used to check the actual size.
Shafts are easily machined down to any size desired. Therefore, tolerance dimensions
are commonly determined using the basic hole system, in which the minimum holes is
taken as the basic size. Then the allowance is determined, and the tolerance are applied.
Basic Hole System ( Conti…)
Smallest possible hole (MMC) is the basic size
Hole tolerance added to basic size for largest hole
Allowance subtracted from basic size for largest shaft
Tolerance of shaft subtracted from largest shaft for smallest shaft

A reamer is a rotary cutting tool used to enlarge the size of a previously formed hole by
a small amount but with a high degree of accuracy to leave smooth sides. The following
shows some of reamer tools.
Broaching is a machining process that uses a toothed tool, called a broach, to remove
material when precision machining is required, especially for odd shapes, like keyholes.
Lapping is a machining process, in which two surfaces are rubbed together with an
abrasive between them, by hand movement or by way of a machine.
Honing is an abrasive machining process that produces a precision surface on a metal
work piece by scrubbing an abrasive stone against it.
Basic Shaft System
Basic Shaft System: Maximum shaft diameter is taken as the basis. Upper deviation for
the Shaft is equal to zero. dmin is prescribed according to the specified tolerance.
In some industries, they use the basic shaft systems. It is advantageous when several
parts having different fits, are required on a single shaft, or when the shaft for some
reason cannot be machine to size easily. In this system, the maximum shaft is taken as
the basic size, an allowance for each mating part is assigned, and the tolerance are
applied.
A shaft basis system may be desirable. For example when driving shaft has a number of
different parts fitted to it, it is preferable to give the shaft a constant diameter and bore
out the various parts to give the required fit for each.
Basic Hole and Shaft System
Tolerance symbols: These are used to specify the tolerance and fits for mating compone
nts. For example, in 40 H8f7, the number 40 indicates thebasic size in millimeters; capit
al letter H indicates the fundamental deviation for the hole; and lower‐
case letter f indicates the shaft. The numbers following the letters indicate corresponding
IT grades.
Fundamental Deviation: is the deviation closest to the basic size.

Possible positions of the tolerance zone in the case of holes.
ISO standard uses tolerance position letters with capital letters for the Holes.
Possible positions of the tolerance zone in case of shafts.
ISO standard uses tolerance position letters with lowercase letters for the Shafts.
Range in a given tolerance grade ( Values in microns )
Representation of Tolerance
Tolerance Grade defines range of dimensions (dimensional variation)
There are manufacturing constraints on tolerance grade chosen
2) Number or Grade : IT01, IT0, IT1,….IT16

Values of standard Tolerance grades for nominal sizes up to 3150 mm
International tolerance grade (IT) is a set of tolerances that varies according to the basic size
and provide a uniform level of accuracy within the grade. For example, in dimension 50H8
for a close-running fir, the IT grade is indicated by the number 8. (the letter H indicates that
the tolerance is on the hole for the 50-mm dimension.)
Tolerance zone refers to the relationship of the tolerance to basic size. It is established by a
combination of the fundamental deviation indicated by a letter and the IT grade number. In
the dimension 50H8, for the close-running fit, the H8 specifies the tolerance zone
Specification of Tolerances
A tolerance of a decimal dimension must be given in decimal form.
Decimal dimension to be held to .001.
There are several methods of expressing tolerances in dimensions that are approved by
ANSI and they are as follows.
1. Limit dimensioning. In this preferred method, the maximum and minimum limits are
specified, as shown below.
Specification of Tolerances ( Conti…)
2. Plus-or-Minus dimensioning. In this method the basic size is followed by a plus-or-minus

expression for the tolerance. The result can be either unilateral, where the tolerance only
applies in one direction so that one value is zero, or bilateral, where either the same or
different values are added and subtracted as show below.
If the plus and minus values are the same, a single value is given, preceded by the plus-or-
minus symbol, as shown below.
3. Single-limit dimensioning. It is not necessary to specify both limits. MIN or MAX is
often placed after a number to indicate minimum or maximum dimensions desired where
other elements of design determine the other unspecified limit.
4. Angular tolerances are usually bilateral and in terms of degrees, minutes, and seconds.
Accumulation of Tolerances
In tolerance dimensioning, it is very important to consider the effect of one tolerance on the
other. When the location of a surface is affected by more than one tolerance value, the
tolerance are cumulative.
Manufacturing Cost and Work Tolerance
It is very pertinent to relate the production of components within the specified tolerance
zone to its associated manufacturing cost.
As the permissive tolerance goes on decreasing, the manufacturing cost incurred to achie
ve it goes on increasing exponentially.
When the permissive tolerance limits are relaxed without degrading the functional requir
ements, the manufacturing cost decreases.
Tolerances and Machining Processes
Tolerance should be as generous as possible and still permit satisfactory use of the part.
Figure below shows a chart, to be used as a general guide, with the tolerances
achievable by the indicated machining process.
General Terminology in Fits
Basic size: This is the size in relation to which all limits of size are derived. Basic or no
minal size is defined as the size based on which the dimensional deviations are given. T
his is, in general, the same for both components.
Limits of size: These are the maximum and minimum permissible sizes acceptable for a
specific dimension. The operator is expected to manufacture the component within these
limits. The maximum limit of size is the greater of the two limits of size, whereas the m
inimum limit of size is the smaller of the two.
Tolerance: This is the total permissible variation in the size of a dimension, that is, the di
fference between the maximum and minimum limits of size. It is always positive.
Allowance: It is the intentional difference between the LLH and HLS. An allowance ma
y be either positive or negative. Allowance = LLH − HLS
Grade: This is an indication of the tolerance magnitude; the lower the grade, the finer th
e tolerance.
General Terminology in Fits ( Conti…)
Deviation: It is the algebraic difference between a size and its corresponding basic size. It may be positive, negative, or zero.
Upper deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the maximum limit of size and its corresponding basic size. This is designated as ‘ES’ f
or a hole and as ‘es’for a shaft.
Lower deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the minimum limit of size and its corresponding basic size. This is designated as ‘EI’ fo
r a hole and as ‘ei’ for a shaft.
Actual deviation: It is the algebraic difference between the actual size and its corresponding basic size.
Fundamental deviation: It is the minimum difference between the size of a component and its basic size. This is identical to the upper deviatio
n for shafts and lower deviation for holes.
Actual size: is the real size of the work piece (is the measured size ).
Zero line: This line is also known as the line of zero deviation. The convention is to draw the
zero line horizontally with positive deviations represented above and negative deviations ind
icated below. The zero line represents the basic size in the graphical representation
Shaft and hole: These terms are used to designate all the external and internal features of any
shape and not necessarily cylindrical.
Fit: It is the relationship that exists between two mating parts, a hole and a shaft, with respect
to their dimensional difference before assembly.
Design Size : refers to the size from which the limits of size are derived by the application of
tolerances.
Nominal size : is the dimension specified in the drawing. (e.g. 20 mm)
Allowance below nominal size : is the distance between zero line and minimum sized work
piece.
Allowance above nominal size : is the distance between zero line and maximum sized work
piece.
Maximum Material Size : The maximum material size is the limit of size of a feature
that results in the part containing the maximum amount of material.
Thus it is the maximum limit of size for a shaft or an external feature, or the minimum
limit of size for a hole or internal feature.
Least material condition (LMC) : is the condition of a part when it contains the least
amount of material possible. The LMC of an external feature is the lower limit of the
part. The LMC of an internal feature is the upper limit of the part.
Bilateral Tolerance : With bilateral tolerance, variation is permitted in both directions

from the specified dimension.
Unilateral Tolerance : With unilateral tolerance, variation is permitted in only one

direction from the specified dimension.
Surface Texture
No surface is perfectly smooth, but the better the Surface quality, the longer a product
generally lasts, and the better is performs.
Surface texture can be difficult to analyze quantitatively.
Two surfaces may be entirely different, yet still provide the same CLA (Ra) value.
Surface geometry can be quantified a few different ways.
Real surfaces are rarely so flat, or smooth, but most commonly a combination of the two
.
Surface Texture ( Conti…)
Roughness - Roughness consists of the finer irregularities in the surface texture, usually
including those that result from the inherent action of the production process. These include
traverse feed marks and other irregularities within the limits of the roughness-width cutoff.
Roughness-Height Value - Roughness-height value is rated as the arithmetic average (AA)

deviation expressed in micro inches or micrometers measured normal to the center line. The
ISO and many European countries use the term CLA (center line average) in lieu of AA.
Both have the same meaning.
Roughness Spacing - Roughness spacing is the distance parallel to the nominal surface
between successive peaks or ridges that constitute the predominant pattern of the roughness.
Roughness spacing is rated in inches or millimeters.
Roughness-Width Cutoff - The greatest spacing of repetitive surface irregularities is
included in the measurement of average roughness height.
Roughness-width cutoff is rated in inches or millimeters and must always be greater than
the roughness width in order to obtain the total roughness-height rating.
Waviness - Waviness is usually the most widely spaced of the surface texture
components and normally is wider than the roughness-width cutoff.
Lay - The direction of the predominant surface pattern, ordinarily determined by the
production method used, is the lay.
Flaws - Flaws are irregularities that occur at one place or at relatively infrequent or
widely varying intervals in a surface.
Surface Texture Symbols
Surface Texture Symbols ( Conti…)
Applications
Evaluation of Surface Roughness
1. Centre line average (CLA) or arithmetic mean Deviation denoted as Ra.
2. Root mean square value (Rg) : rms value q ( g)
3. Maximum peak to valley roughness (hmax)
4. The average of the five highest peak and five deepest valleys in the sample.
5. The average or leveling depth of the profile.

Roughness range for common production methods
Typical surface Roughness height applications
Comparison of roughness values
Determination of Mean Line
M‐System: After plotting the characteristic of any surface a horizontal line is drawn by joining
two points.
This line is shifts up and down in such away that 50% area is above the line and 50% area is
below the line.
E‐System: (Envelop System) A sphere of 25mm diameter is rolled over the surface and the
locus of its center is being traced out called envelope.
This envelope is shifted in down ward direction till the area above the line is equal to the area
below the line.
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing ( Conti…)
Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing ( Conti…)
System of Fits and Allowances ( Conti…)
Running and Sliding Fits - A special type of clearance fit. These are intended to provide a
similar running performance, with suitable lubrication allowance, throughout the range of
sizes.
Locational Fits - They may provide rigid or accurate location, as with interference fits, or
some freedom of location, as with clearance fits.
Accordingly, they are divided into three groups: clearance fits, transition fits, and interference
fits.
Locational clearance fits - are intended for parts that are normally stationary but that can be
freely assembled or disassembled.
Locational transition fits - are a compromise between clearance and interference fits when
accuracy of location is important but a small amount of either clearance or interference is
permissible.
Locational interference fits - are used when accuracy of location is of prime importance and
for parts requiring rigidity and alignment with no special requirements for bore pressure.

GD and Tolerancing

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

GD and Tolerancing

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Engineering Graphics

Fits and Limits

One of the oldest and most important of the visual arts.

Subjects depend on the time and place in which they live.

An engineering drawing is a drawing or a set of drawings that communicates an idea,

An engineering drawing, (Technical drawing ),(Projections) is a graphical representation

Codes and Standards

A standard is a set of specification for parts, materials, or process intended to achieve

Examples of the organizations that establish standards and codes:

Projection - from two Latin words:

Pro, meaning “forward”

Jacere, meaning “to throw”

The literal meaning is “thrown forward, drawn at right angles”.

Projection –image or the act of obtaining an image of an object.

Method – we use projection method to obtain a view of an object.

Greek word Orthos (= Straight, rectangular, upright) + Graphe (=Drawn, written ).

Technical method to represent 3D object in 2D (plane).

It is a technical drawing in which different views of an object are projected on different

On a technical drawing, a plane is an imaginary flat surface that has no thickness.

Orthographic projection involves the use of three different Reference planes.

Horizontal Plane (HP),

Vertical Frontal Plane ( VP )

Side Or Profile Plane ( PP)

FV is a view projected on VP.

TV is a view projected on HP.

SV is a view projected on PP.

First angle projection is used in European countries.

Third angle projection is used in the US and Canada.

Second and fourth angle projection is not used in any country.

Front view = vertical plane.

Left side view = profile plane.

In first angle projection,

The Front View is located above the Top View.

The Left-side View is to the right of the Front View.

First angle projection

Third angle projection

Projection system symbols and recommended proportions

Important terms of orthographic projections

2 ) Pattern of planes & Pattern of views

3 ) Methods of drawing Orthographic Projections

The projection theory is based on two variables:

2) Plane of projection (image plane or picture plane)

Plane of projection is an imaginary flat plane which the image is created.

Orthographic projection technique can produce either :

1. Multiview drawing that each view show an object in two dimensions.

Both drawing types are used in technical drawing for communication.

Axonometric (Isometric) Drawing

Disadvantage - Shape and angle distortion

Advantage - It represents accurate shape and size.

Disadvantage -Require practice in writing and reading.

Example Multiview drawing (2-view drawing)

The Glass Box Approach / Concepts

The Glass Box Approach / Concepts ( Conti…)

First and Third Angle Projections

Orientation of drawing sheet

1 . Perspective Projection 2. Oblique Projection 3. Axonometric Projection

Perspective projection is not used by engineer for manufacturing of parts, because:

2) It does not reveal exact shape and size.

2. Oblique projection is mostly used by the mathematicians and furniture

Dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and

A dimension is a numerical value expressed in appropriate units of measurement and

As far as possible, dimensions should be placed outside the view.

Each feature should be dimensioned once on a drawing .