 Content analysis is "a wide and heterogeneous set

of manual or computer-assisted techniques

for contextualized interpretations of documents”.
There are three prominent features of content analysis:
1. Systematic
2. Objective
3. Quantitative
1. Content Requirements
2. Content Collections
3. Content Processing
4. Content Cleaning
5. Exploratory Content analysis
6. Modeling and Logarithms
7. Content Product
 There are two types of Content Analysis;
which are given below
1. Conceptual Analysis
2. Relational Analysis
 Conceptual analysis is one of the main traditional
methods of analysis which can be answered solely on
the basis of one's grasp of the relevant concepts.
 Relational analysis seeks to go beyond presence
by exploring the relationships between the
concepts identified. Relational analysis has also
been termed semantic analysis
 Directly connected with the content.
Can allow for both quantitative and qualitative
operations.
 Can provides valuable historical/cultural
insights
 Analyzing interactions.
 Extremely time consuming.
Increased error, particularly when relational

analysis is used.
Is often devoid of theoretical base, or attempts.

too liberally to draw meaningful inferences.

 Tends too often to simply consist of word
counts.
 Can be difficult to automate or computerize.
 FIELD EXPERIMENT

AN EXPERIMENT CARRIED OUT IN THE NATURAL

ENVIRONMENT.

THE IV IS MANIPULATED BY THE EXPERIMENTER.

SOME SITUATIONAL VARIABLES ARE CONTROLLED.

IN MOST (BUT NOT ALL) – PARTICIPANTS DO NOT KNOW

THEY ARE TAKING PART, WHICH REDUCES PROBLEMS
LIKE DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS.
EXAMPLE
• HOFFLING HOSPITAL EXPERIMENT.
• IV – ORDER OVER THE PHONE FROM ‘ DOCTOR
SMITH’ TO GIVE A PATIENT 20MG OF ASTROTEN.
• DV – WHETHER THEY GAVE THE PATIENT THE
DRUG OR NOT
• 21 OUT OF 22 NURSES DID AS THEY WERE TOLD.
 Field study

 Main types of Field study are:

 Ethnography
 Ethnomethodology
 Phenomenological Study

 Purposes of Field study:

 Data collection
 Theory construction
Ethnography

 A way of building an understanding the culture and behaviours

of a group as a whole.
 Done in a setting or field site where a group of people share a
common culture.
 In sociology, ethnography usually called a field study
 Uses:
 Participant Observation
 Interviews with Informants
 Examination of documents and cultural artifacts
Ethnomethodology

 The study of commonsense knowledge

 How do individuals make sense of social situations and act on
their knowledge?
 What are the tacit rules used by members of a culture?
 Detailed studies of interactions
 Breaching experiments (Garfinkel)
 To uncover hidden norms
Phenomenological Study

 Understanding an experience from a research participant's

point of view
 Interview several participants as to their perceptions of an
experience
 Try to build a picture of the experience through using a
combination of theories, literature in the area, illustrated by
anecdotes, to build a detailed portrait of the experience
 Main Methods Used in Field
study:

 Field study includes:

 Case study approach

 Participant observation and non-participant
observation
 Intensive interviewing
The Case Study Approach

 To try to develop an understanding of a social process by

studying one case or a small number of cases in depth
 Can be done using a combination of intensive interviewing
and observation
Observation in Field study

 Preparing for the field:

 1. Background preparation and literature
review

 2. Talking to informants

 3. Gaining entry into the group

 Gatekeepers
 Public vs. private settings
The Various Roles of the Observer
(Raymond Gold’s levels)
 A. Complete participant

 B. Participant-as-observer

 C. Observer-as-participant

 D. Complete observer
 Asking Questions: The Field study
Interview
 Types of qualitative interviews:
 Structured
 Semistructured
 unstructued

 Field study most often uses unstructured interviews

 The use of probes is important in Field study

Structured Interviews:
 Structured interviews are defined as research
tools that are extremely rigid in their operations
are allows very little or no scope of prompting
the participants to obtain and analyze results.
 It is thus also known as a standardized interview
and is significantly quantitative in its approach.
Questions in this interview are pre-decided
according to the required detail of information.
 Structured interviews are excessively used in
survey research with the intention of maintaining
uniformity throughout all the interview sessions.
 They can be closed-ended as well as open-ended
Semi-Structured Interviews:

 Semi-structured interviews offer a considerable

amount of leeway to the researcher to probe the
respondents along with maintaining basic
interview structure.
 Questions of semi-structured interviews are
prepared before the scheduled interview which
provides the researcher with time to prepare and
analyze the questions.th maintaining basic
interview structure.
Unstructured Interviews:

 Also called as in-depth interviews, unstructured

interviews are usually described as conversations
held with a purpose in mind – to gather data
about the research study.
 These interviews have the least number of
questions as they lean more towards a normal
conversation but with an underlying subject.