FM RECEIVER AND

DETECTION

1
 BASIC FM DEMODULATORS
 The FM discriminator (detector) extracts the intelligence that has

modulated onto the carrier via frequency variations.

 FM detection is two stage process:

FM to AM conversion

AM to AF conversion using diode detector

v FM  t 
vFM(t) y(t)

t t
t

2
 FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR

3
 FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR

4
 Circuit Operation at Resonance

5
 Circuit Operation above Resonance

When a series- tuned circuit operates at a frequency above

resonance, the inductive reactance of the coil increases and the
capacitive reactance of the capacitor decreases
 Above resonance, the tank circuit acts like an inductor Secondary
current lags the primary tank voltage
The voltage developed across R1 is greater than the voltage
developed across R2, the output voltage is positive

6
 Circuit Operation below Resonance
 Below resonance the tank acts like a capacitor and the

secondary current leads primary tank voltage

The voltage drop across R4 is larger than that across R3 and

the output across both is negative.

7
 FOSTER-SEELEY DISCRIMINATOR

1. Calculation of VL3
2. Calculation of Secondary voltage V2 and Vab
3. Voltage across diodes D1 and D2
8
Case2 : fin>fc Case3 : fin<fc

MV 1 Xc 2900
Vab  MV 1 Xc 2900
L 1 Z 2  Vab 
L1 Z 2   
MV 1 Xc 290   MV 1 Xc 290  
Vab  Vab 
L1 Z 2 L1 Z 2
 Ratio Detector
 By making a few changes in the Foster-Seely discriminator, it is

possible to have a demodulator circuit which has built in capability to

handle the amplitude changes of the input FM signal
 This obviates the need for an amplitude limiter

 This resulting circuit is called the ratio detector

 The same vector diagram of Foster Seeley discriminator applies for

ratio detector

10
 RATIO DETECTOR

Va ' b'  Vo1  Vo 2

Va ' b'
Vo  Vb' o'Vb' o   V 02
2
Vo1  Vo 2
Vo   V 02
2
Vo1  Vo 2
Vo 
1 2
1
Block Diagram of FM Transmitter
with pre-emphasis
HETERODYNE METHOD OF FREQUENCY UP-
CONVERSION

13
 MULTIPLICATION METHOD OF
UP-CONVERSION

14
540KHz to 1640KHz

Ganged
tuning
Problems of Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

1. Instability- Overall gain of RF amplifiers is very very high so

a very small f/b from o/p to i/p with correct phase can initiate
oscillations . Due to stray capacitance at high freq.

2. Variation in BW- For 535KHz – 1640KHz Range

BW=10KHz
for fc=535 Q=fr/BW=535/10=53.5
for fc=1640 Q=164
But max value of Q is 120 so BW=fr/Q=1640/120=13.7K
So receiver picks adjacent channels.

3. Insufficient Selectivity- Due to variable BW selectivity of TRF

receiver is poor.
Superheterodyne Receivers
 Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to
a lower frequency, known as the intermediate frequency
(IF), at which a single set of amplifiers is used to provide a
fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity.

 Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers.

 The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a simple

amplitude modulator to produce sum and difference
frequencies.

 The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal.

 Super heterodyne principle

f0
F0>fc
f0+fc
MIXER
Fc
f0-fc
AM Wave If=f0-fc
If is Intermediate Freq
Fo

Oscillator

fIF is a fixed value (typically 455-kHz for AM radio).

fo is tuned
 Superheterodyne Receiver

AGC = Automatic Gain Control

AGC samples the signal strength at the detector and then feeds back a
control signal to adjust the gain of the earlier stages
AGC keeps audio volume fairly constant if signals level vary
 IF = LO - Input RF

540KHz to 1640KHz

455KHz
Image Frequency= The image frequency fi is a potentially interfering RF
signal that is spaced 2 times the IF above or below the desired frequency fs.
Which image that occurs depends upon whether the local oscillator
frequency fo is above or below the signal frequency. The mixing process
creates sum and difference frequencies for the desired signal (680 kHz). It
also creates sum and difference frequencies
for the undesired signal (1590 kHz).
1135- 680 =455 kHz
1590- 1135= 455 kHz

Fsi=fs+2IF

680 1135 1590

IF Amplifiers

The primary objective in the design of an IF stage is to obtain

good selectivity.

Choice of IF=
1. High IF – Poor selectivity and poor adjacent channel
rejection tracking problem increases.
2. Very Low If –Image frequency rejection is poor and sharp
selectivity cut the side bands.

3. If must not fall in tuning range of receiver.

So IF is selected as 455KHz.
Local Oscillator
 What should be the frequency of the local oscillator used for
translation from RF to IF?

fLO = fc + fIF (up-conversion)

or fLO = fc  fIF (down-conversion)
 Tuning ratio = fLO, max / fLO, min
 Up-Conversion: (1600 + 455) / (530+455) ≈ 2
 Down-Conversion: (1600–455) / (530–455) ≈ 12

 Easier to design oscillator with small tuning ratio.

Block Diagram of FM Receiver
 FM Receivers

A limiter is a non-linear circuit that compares the input to a certain threshold value.
The output indicates either comparison is true or false (i.e., binary results).
Typically the output is a saturated minimum or maximum value.
2
8
 FM Capture effect
Capture effect
In telecommunication, the capture effect, or FM
capture effect, is a phenomenon, associated with FM
reception, in which only the stronger of two signals at
or near the same frequency will be demodulated

The capture effect is defined as the complete

suppression of the weaker signal occurs at the
receiver limiter, if it has one, where it is not amplified,
but attenuated. When both signals are nearly equal in
strength, or are fading independently, the receiver may
switch from one to the other.
30
540KHz to 1640KHz

Ganged
tuning
Problems of Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

1. Instability- Overall gain of RF amplifiers is very very high so a very

small f/b from o/p to i/p with correct phase can initiate oscillations . Due
to stray capacitance at high freq.

2. Variation in BW- For 535KHz – 1640KHz Range BW=10KHz

for fc=535 Q=fr/BW=535/10=53.5
for fc=1640 Q=164
But max value of Q is 120 so BW=fr/Q=1640/120=13.7K
So receiver picks adjacent channels.

3. Insufficient Selectivity- Due to variable BW selectivity of TRF receiver is

poor.
Superheterodyne Receivers

 Superheterodyne receivers convert all incoming signals to a lower

frequency, known as the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a
single set of amplifiers is used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity
and selectivity.

 Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers.

 The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a simple amplitude
modulator to produce sum and difference frequencies.

 The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator signal.

 Super heterodyne principle

F0>fc
f0
MIXER
Fc f0+fc

AM Wave f0-fc
If=f0-fc
If is Intermediate Freq
Fo

Oscillator

fIF is a fixed value (typically 455-kHz for AM radio).

fo is
 Superheterodyne Receiver

AGC = Automatic Gain Control

AGC samples the signal strength at the detector and then feeds back a
control signal to adjust the gain of the earlier stages
AGC keeps audio volume fairly constant if signals level vary
 IF = LO - Input RF

540KHz to 1640KHz

455KHz
Image Frequency= The image frequency fi is a potentially interfering RF
signal that is spaced 2 times the IF above or below the desired frequency fs.
Which image that occurs depends upon whether the local oscillator
frequency fo is above or below the signal frequency. The mixing process
creates sum and difference frequencies for the desired signal (680 kHz). It
also creates sum and difference frequencies
for the undesired signal (1590 kHz).
1135- 680 =455 kHz
1590- 1135= 455 kHz

Fsi=fs+2IF

680 1135 1590

Image Frequency rejection Ratio

Gainatsignalfreq
IFRR   1 Q2 2
Gainatimagefreq

Where Q= Loaded Q of the tuned ckt.

fsi fs
 
fs fsi

If two tuned ckts are there then

IFRR   1*  2
 Double spotting= Same station gets picked up at two diff.
nearby points, on the receiver dial.
This can be reduced by increasing front end selectivity.

Fo1=1955K
Fo2=1045K

Radio Dial 590K 2*IF 1500K

Tracking= In tuning process the Local oscillator freq tracks the station
freq to have a correct diff of IF(455KHz).
If diff freq is not correct the error is called as Tracking error.

3 Point Tracking=
 Padder tracking

950

1500
Trimmer
tracking

The Cp in series with Cosc decreases total capacitance and increases

Freq. in +ve direction making tracking error zero.
The Ct in parallel with Cosc increases total capacitance and decreases
Freq. in -ve direction
Diode Detector
Two distortions of envelope Detector
1. When RC time constant of load is too long.

1 1
 RC 
fc fm
Modulation index at the o/p side of detector is higher than i/p side.
Zm=Diode load impedance at
Rc audio freq
md  m *
Zm
Rc=Dc diode load resistance

md max 1
Zm
m max 
Rc
 Practical Diode Detector

1. Negative envelope will be demodulated and a –ve AGC will developed.

2. R1-C1 LPF removes RF ripple.
3. C2 prevents dc o/p to reach to volume control.
4. R3-C3 LPF removes AF from demodulated o/p.
Types of AGC used in receivers

1. Simple AGC- Receiver gain is

automatically adjusted by –ve AGC.
Gain is reduced for weak signals also.
2. Ideal AGC- Gain is not reduced for
weak signals only for very strong
signals. Then O/p is constant.
3. Delayed AGC- AGC bias is provided
after a level of signal. Used in High
quality receivers.