BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

BM206
NAME: DR ALBERT MADA PhD
BA, BSc, BTech, MA, MED, MBA, PhDs

FROM: CHIRUMANZU (BORN AND BRED)

COURSE: BUSINESS RESEARCH METHODS

Class code   2jico6

SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE

Research

Experience

Tradition

Authority

Intuition
PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

 to discover new knowledge

 To describe a phenomena

 To enable prediction

 To enable control

 To enable explanation of the phenomenon

 To enable theory development

Meaning of Business Research
 Is to carry out a diligent inquiry or a critical examination
of a phenomenon;
 A critical analysis of existing conclusions or theories;
 A continued search for new knowledge and
understanding of world around us;
 A process of arriving at effective solutions to business
problem through systematic collection, analysis
and interpretation of data;

So we can,
• Define business opportunities and threats
• Generate and evaluate ideas
• Monitor performance
• Understand going concern of the business.
RESEARCH AND SCIENCE
Research -critical examination or inquiry to discover facts

Science -systematic knowledge of natural or physical phenomena;

truth ascertained by observation, experiment, and induction

GENERAL OBJECTIVES

• Define concepts used in Business research Methods;

• Demonstrate understanding of the theory and practice of BR methods

• Develop Skills and attitudes required in BRM

• Develop acceptable RP

• Demonstrate creativity by designing solutions to business challenges

• Collect qualitative and quantitative data procedurally

• Analyse, present and interpret the data correctly

Identification of a Topic

Justification of the problem

Significance of the Problem

Stating of the Problem

Review of Related Literature

Research Design & Methodology

Data Analysis Procedures

Summary, Conclusions & Recommendations

BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH

Population: an entire group of individuals, events or

objects having a common observable characteristic

 aggregate of all that conforms to a given specification

SAMPLE: a smaller group obtained from accessible population

 A member or case in the sample is referred to as a subject, respondent,

interviewee.

Sampling: process of selecting a number of individuals for study

representation the large group from which they are

selected
Variable: a measurable characteristic that assumes different values among subjects,
an attribute
(dependant, indpndnt,intervening,confoundng, antecedent)

Conceptual/theoretical defn of varbls = ( a way of defnng meanng of variabl)

Data: all the information the researcher gathers for the study.
-Primary data
-Secondary data

Parameter: refers to a population characteristic (Zim’s per capita income

i.e avrg income /person in Zim)
****variabl charactrstc of a sample.***

Statistics: science of organising , describing and analyzing quantitative data.

- also refers to indices derivd frm data. Eg. Mean, standard deviation,
corellation, coefficient, beta coefficient etc.
Descriptive Statistics: indices that describe a given sample
e.g. Measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median)
measures of dispersion (range, standard deviation, variance),
distributions ( percentages, frequencies) and relationships (correlations)

Inferential Statistics: draw inferences abt a given phenomenon in the population

the purpose is to test hypotheses and enable the researcher to generalize

Objectives: any kind of a desired end or condition. Specific aspects of the

phenomenon understudy that the researcher desires to bring
out at the end.
Literature Review: involves locating, reading, and evaluating reports of previous studies,
observations and opinions related to the planned study.

Problem Statement: Is a specific statement that clearly conveys the purpose of the
research study. The statement focuses on the phenomenon that the
researchers express the problem statement in question form.

Units of Analysis - also Unit of statistical analysis , refers to those units that are
described for the purposes of aggregating their characteristics in order to
some larger grp or abstract phenomenon.
Br. Albert Mada, SC
BA, BSc, BA, MA, MED, MBA
FROM CHIRUMANZU
The Positivist Paradigm

 Based on the belief of an objective reality

 Studies variables
 Seeks to explain causal relationships between variables.
 Seeks to generate laws that generalize communication behavior
 Uses quantitative data
The Systems Paradigm

 There are five characteristics of a system.

 Interdependence of parts of system
 Systems are organized wholes.
 The “whole” is greater than the sum of its parts.
 They are characterized by dynamic equilibrium.
 Systems vary in their degree of openness
 Seeks to explain functions of parts in relation to
the whole.
 Studies variables
 Uses quantitative data
The Interpretive Paradigm

 Humans are capable of reflectivity and their action is purposive

 Studies meaning through semantic relationships
 Studies meaning through rules
 Constructs theories of understanding
 Local knowledge Theories
 Heuristic frameworks
 Uses qualitative data
The Critical Paradigm

 Reflection produces knowledge

 Critical reflection enables the exposure of ideologies and power imbalances
 Research should enable social change
 Social science is subject to critical reflection
Decision-Making
Decision-Making is the process of resolving a
problem or choosing amongst alternative
opportunities
 What is the problem or opportunity?
 How much Information is available?
 What Information is needed?

Complete Absolute
Decision-Making
Certainty Ambiguity
Situation

Br. AL Mada,SC
Value of Research 04032014 21
Flowcharting the Research Process (1)
Problem Discovery

Selection of Secondary (historical) data

exploratory Pilot Study
research technique Experience Survey
Case Study

Problem Definition
(Statement of research objectives)

Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)

Selection of Experiment (Laboratory, Field)
basic research Secondary Data Study
method Observation
Br. AL. Mada,SC 040314 22
Flowcharting the Research Process (2)
Survey (Interview, Questionnaire)
Experiment (Laboratory, Field) Collection of Data (Fieldwork)
Secondary Data Study
Observation
Editing and Coding Data

Sample Design
Data Processing and Analysis

Probability Non-Probability Interpretation of Findings

Sampling Sampling

Report
Br. AL.Mada,SC 23
Ethical Interfaces in Business Research

Clients’ Rights
Subjects’ Rights

Researchers’ Obligation Researchers’ Obligation

Research Research
Researcher
Subject Sponsor

Researchers’ Rights Researchers’ Rights

Subjects’ Obligation Clients’ Obligation

Subjects Rights & Clients Obligation 24

Some Central Issues in Social Research

 Description versus Explanation (notes follow Punch, Ch. 2)

 Goal of scientific inquiry is not just to describe phenomena, but
to explain them and to make predictions based on the patterns
that are uncovered and their putative causes or at least their
antecedents
 The purpose of description is to give an account of the
phenomenon in order to improve understanding and reduce
complexity by extracting the features necessary to achieve
understanding. The “what”
 The purpose of explanation is to locate the causal underpinnings
of events; to create a “story” in which the reasons for things or
the enabling or antecedent conditions which give rise to them
are laid out. The “why” and/or the “how”.
Description versus Explanation

 Presumably if we know what happened, why it happened, and

how it happened, we will be able to
 Predict under what circumstances it might happen again and
 Possibly prevent/encourage it from happening again by
removing/encouraging motivating or enabling conditions.
 Although generally speaking purely descriptive studies have
less appeal to journal editors, descriptive research is important
 When the phenomena of interest are new and unexplored, or
 When the researcher is attempting to isolate causal factors for
testing with confirmatory methods
 Description is of course the essential work of ethnography
Description versus Explanation,
continued

 How does explanation relate to theory? Theory is a systematic,

sometimes axiomatic effort to explain a phenomenon or group of
phenomena. Both descriptive and explanatory studies have a role in the
development of theory.
 Theory verification vs. theory generation
 Theory verification: from theory we derive hypotheses which are then
tested. More likely to be quantitative
 Theory generation: theory derived from the data we have collected and
described, using a defined strategy such as grounded theory. More likely to
be qualitative
 Punch presents a model of the structure of scientific knowledge based
on a “nomothetic” view (nomothetic refers to disciplines characterized
by the search for universally applicable scientific laws).
 In the model empirical generalizations are based on observed regularities in
raw data, and the generalizations are “covered” by an explanatory theory.
Question-Method Connection

 The choice of research method or combination of methods is tied to the

type of question asked (although in practice the question is often shaped
to the available resources including the researcher’s training and area of
expertise, e.g., the “law of the hammer”, see also “methodolatry”)
 Questions like “what sorts of messages are conveyed in ads featuring
female athletes” are exploratory in nature and call for qualitative methods.
 A question like “what is the relationship between gender of celebrity
endorser and product type” calls for quantitative, correlational methods
 A question like “which type of celebrity (athlete, musician, actor) is most
effective in promoting a Democratic senatorial candidate” calls for
quantitative, experimental methods with random assignment of subjects to
conditions and systematic rotation of endorser type across messages
Question-Method Connection,
continued

 Other questions such as “what is the process by which celebrity

endorsement leads to product purchase” might be best pursued
through interview methods with structured recall leading to a
narrative account of the trajectory from exposure to purchase.
 The important thing to remember is that the questions come first
and the methods follow (although methods can sometimes limit
what can be studied)
 The hard part is to figure out what the question is, precisely, that
you want answered. When the question has been properly
formulated the way to study it becomes much more clear.
Tight versus Loose Structure

 How much structure is applied to the research ahead of time, with

respect to
 Research questions
 Can range from explicitly stated hypotheses to research questions to
completely exploratory work with no formulated research questions and
only a loose conceptual framework, if any, for guidance
 Research design
 Can range from experimental designs with planned comparisons among
conditions and control of potentially confounding variables, to quasi-
experimental design to case studies and ethnographies
 Data
 Can range from ratio level measurement where the obtained data is coded
into pre-established categories based on valid, reliable, established
measures to inductive categorization based on categories which emerge
from the researcher’s immersion in the data
Tight versus Loose Structure,
continued

 Typically a quantitative study will introduce the most explicit

forms of these three sorts of structure (research questions,
research design, data) , at the beginning or very early in the
research process
 Typically a qualitative study will seek to keep structure to a
minimum, at least at the beginning, so that less obvious and
more elusive patterns and structures can emerge
 Similarly, theory verification research will tend toward the
highly structured and theory generation research will be more
loosely structured
Introduction to Research Methods

 Notes from Williams and Monge, Chapters 1,2,3

 A research method “refers to the strategy, plan and activities
undertaken to accomplish the research”
 Often both narrative/descriptive or qualitative approaches and
quantitative methods using statistics can be profitably employed
to provide answers to questions about human communication.
 In a study of “The Telegarden” done some years back one of our questions was
how the members dealt with people who violated the social norms of the group
which had formed. Both quantitative methods involving numerical comparisons
of coded message posts and historical/descriptive analysis involving a critical
incident helped us to further our understanding.
Uses of Quantitative Research

 It doesn’t make much sense to talk about one approach as being superior
to the other.
 Both have their uses and can complement each other and lead to further
interesting questions when the methods yield conflicting findings.
 The important thing is to decide what circumstances might make
application of quantitative methods appropriate.
 Quantitative methods are appropriate when measurement can offer a
useful description
 We can say that someone is 6 feet tall, or we can say that she is “the tallest
in the group”, or that she is “one of the tall ones” (interval, ordinal,
nominal), or we could say that she is an “Amazon”, or someone who
“towers over this researcher” It depends on what we want to do with the
information. Sometimes we want to use very precise metrics, and
sometimes we want to make comparisons, and sometimes we want to
provide a subjective impression of an object of study in reference to
ourselves.
Is Measurement Relevant, Useful,
Possible?

 Is measurement relevant and possible?

 One of the questions we have to ask is at what level it might be possible to
measure something.
 Suppose we have a group of ten cat owners. What measures would
we use to sort them out by how much they love their cats? Amount
spent on vet bills? Time per day spent petting, grooming?
 Could we order them from 1 to 10, where number 10 loves her cat
ten times as much as number 1?
 Could we order them but say only that number ten loves her cat
more than number 9 by the same amount that number 2 loves her cat
more than number 1?
 Could we merely order them, but not say anything about how much
they differ, pairwise?
 Could we merely classify them into high, low and moderate love?
Would a narrative description gained from interviews and/or
observations be more useful?
Are there Generalizations to be Made and or
Hypotheses to be Tested?

 Quantitative methods are appropriate when there are statistical

generalizations to be made/hypotheses to be tested
 One of the reasons for using statistics is that we want to be able to
generalize about the attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of people on the basis
of a set of observations that will probably be limited by various constraints
including financial ones.
 So we have to find out the answers to various questions, such as,
 Am I able to describe precisely the population to which I want to
generalize?
 Do I have confidence that I can draw a sample that is large enough and
representative enough to stand in for the population?
 Is the variability within the sample so great that it doesn’t make sense to
talk about central tendencies?
Are there Observable Differences?

 Another reason for using statistics that we want to answer questions

like, “is the tendency I observed in this group something distinctive,
different from what one would expect just by chance?” or, are these
two, or three, or some larger number of groups different in ways that
exceed chance expectations?
 Suppose the question were about the efficacy of a new drug. What sort of
confidence would you have to have that the difference between a treatment and a
control group not taking the drug was not due to chance before you would
recommend the drug? Ten percent? Five percent? One percent? Less than that?
 How much confidence would you have if the report about the drug’s efficacy
were based on methods of interviews and participant observation (anecdotal
reports of “feeling better”)? Would statistical hypothesis testing increase your
confidence? Would it depend on how “feeling better” was measured?
Some Problems with Quantitative
Studies

 Typical problems in quantitative studies:

 Validity; we may not be measuring what we think we are measuring. Subjects
don’t see it as we do
 Reliability; we may not have confidence that our “yardstick” is measuring in a
consistent way
 Convenience samples
Common Terms in Quantitative
Research

 Some terms that reflect the application of the scientific method in

communication research practice:
 Phenomenon: the object of study; the behaviors, beliefs, attitudes, characteristics,
and their purported inter-relationships that we seek to describe, explain, and/or predict
(e.g. How competent people are at using computers)
 Variable: an observable property or characteristic that can be measured
(operationalized) and is expected to vary across cases or observational instances, such
as what people report about their ability to use computers, or, what computer skills
people can demonstrate, etc.
 Independent variable
 Dependent variable
 Measurement: a plan for operationalizing the variable, such as using a particular
scale or observational technique (e.g. Durndell and Haag self-report measure of
computer self-efficacy)
 Data: the obtained values which the researcher ascribes to individual measured
instances of the variable (the numbers researchers assign to the answers study subjects
give to items on the self-efficacy scale)
Terms in Quantitative Research,
continued

 Population: the totality of cases which constitute the sphere within which the
phenomenon is to be observed. Could be people in general, people in the US,
college students, children under 12, could also be states, cities, animal shelters,
department stores, countries, etc.
 Sample: some portion of the population which is believed to be representative
 Descriptive statistics: statistically derived values that represent the central
tendencies and variability with a body of data
 Sampling statistics: values used to make inferences about the characteristics of
the population from which they were drawn, including the variation of the
sample characteristics from corresponding population parameters
Elements of a Quantitative Study: The Problem

 Typical sort of quantitative study as reported in a journal will

feature the following elements:
 Literature review leading to problem statement leading to
research question or hypothesis
 Research obliged to “follow the conversation”, summarize what is
known, what is controversial or not known, and what remains to be
done.
 May formulate a general question or make specific predictions about
what relationships among variables may be found.
 Hypothesis ordinarily will be stated in terms of a specific
operationalization of the variables of interest as well as the nature of
their relationships
Elements of a Quantitative Study:
Method

 Method, including subjects, measures and procedures

 Descriptive methods, where variables and their relationships are
observed and described (seniors who have high scores on computer
self-efficacy have high scores on social support)
 Quasi-experimental (e.g. seniors who take a computer class have
higher scores on social support after one year than those who don’t
sign up (no random assignment, based on self-selection; no
experimenter manipulation)
 Experimental methods, where one or more of the variables are
manipulated by the researcher to provide for systematic
examination of their interrelationships. (same as above except half
of the seniors have been randomly assigned to a six-month long
computer class and half have not)
 Importance of control, avoiding of confounding factors
Elements of a Quantitative Study,
Method, continued

 Subjects (Respondents, Participants); who constitutes a “case” in the study.

Some studies may have other cases such as web sites, tv episodes, etc.
 Materials: questionnaires, interview protocols, coding schemes, hardware,
environmental manipulations, etc. measures, operationalizations, material
circumstances of experimental conditions.
 Procedures: Instructional set, repeated measures design, debriefing, etc.
Elements of a Quantitative Study:
Results

 Results
 Reliability and validity assessments
 Reliability : internal consistency of measure; alternatively,
consistency of measurement over time with the same subject, case,
instance. Test-retest; alpha coefficient
 Validity: does the measure really assess what it claims it does?
Internal validity (does the research design represent what it says it
does?) External validity (can the study’s results be said to apply to
the real world? Face, concurrent, predictive, construct (convergent
validity and discriminant validityare two subtypes of construct
validity-measures that should be related are, and that should not be
related, theoretically, are not).
 Validity implies reliability; but reliability does not imply validity
Elements of a Quantitative Study:
Results, continued

 Data analyses (performing calculations on obtained data,

conducting statistical hypothesis testing).
 Researcher is assumed to have made decisions beforehand as to the level of
statistical error that will be tolerated, what sort of “tail” (one or two) the test
will have if appropriate, etc.
Elements of a Quantitative Study:
Discussion

 Discussion
 Conclusions
 Limitations
 Implications for future research
Fundamental Assumptions of
Quantitative Research

Steps in the research process (notes from Kendrick)

 Specify research goals and devise one or more research
questions
 Review the literature
 Formulate hypotheses: reduce problem to be studied to a
testable and preferably falsifiable statement of a set of
relationships among variables of interest
 Measure and record
 Analyze the data
 Invite scrutiny
 Sampling from Populations

 Populations, elements of populations, and units of analysis

 Population --all registered voters in US
 Elements within populations – the individual registered voter
 Units of analysis or units of observation—the individual, or
perhaps the individual’s household, spouse, etc.
 Sample: subset of population selected to represent the population from which you
draw it
 Probability sample: selected so that each element in the population has a known
probability of being included in the sample
 Sampling frame: list of elements in the population (e.g. list of all persons
paying property taxes in Los Angeles County in 2008)
Sampling from Populations, cont’d

 Types of sampling
 Simple random sampling (random number table, computer
program)
 Systematic sampling with a random start; only the first element
is selected at random; then every nth
 Multistage sampling processes
 Stratification; partitioning the sampling frame by factors such
as gender, ethnicity etc before random or systematic sampling
 Clustering, for ex., in absence of good sampling frame, obtain
list of clusters of elements in the frame, e.g., neighborhoods, zip
codes, city blocks, then randomly select clusters, then randomly
select within clusters
Variables and their Relationships

 Variables: properties that vary from person to person, such as age,

gender, attitudes toward politics, self-monitoring, etc., or that vary
within the same element or unit of analysis over time.
 Independent variable: assumed to be causal (logic, time order, ascribed vs.
achieved characteristics)
 Dependent variable: assumed to be an effect or result of one or more other
variables
 Variables have categories (e.g., M/F; Caucasian non-Hispanic/African-
American, Hispanic, etc.;) and numbers or values can be assigned to these
 Relationships between variables
 Control variables; some variable other than the independent or dependent
variable which is thought to influence their relationship; e.g., effect
attributable to ethnicity may actually be due to the correlation of religion
and ethnicity
 Symmetrical relationship; variables are correlated but it is not possible to
specify the direction of a causal relationship
Independent and Dependent Variables:
Which is Which?

 Independent variables must be chronologically prior to

dependent variables
 Ascribed characteristics (inherited, properties over which one
has little/no control, such as height or eye color or ethnicity are
usually independent variables (although not always)
 Achieved or acquired characteristics (attitudes, values, beliefs,
etc) are frequently dependent variables, though not always
(consider health behaviors, for example, in which attitudes and
beliefs play a major role in health information seeking,
compliance with physician’s instructions, etc.)
Levels of Measurement

 Categories, Values, Data (e.g., Category =Gender: Values: 1=Female, 2=Male;

Data: respondent #22=2)
 Levels of Measurement (Kendrick, Chapter 2; Williams and Monge, Chapter 3).
The level at which a variable is measured determines the kinds of statistics
which can be used to describe or make inferences about the variable. Generally,
researchers use numbers to classify or categorize, to rank or order, or to assign
a score or rating
 Discrete vs. Continuous Variables
 Discrete: variables countable in quantities that can’t be reduced to smaller units, such
as no. of children, jobs you hold, movies you attend weekly.
 Continuous: countable in quantities that can be reduced indefinitely, such as time. A
variable may be theoretically continuous such as age but in practice it will be
measured as discrete because of available metrics
 (smallest age measurement usually in hours or days); same with attitudes or other
ratio type variables that are treated in practice as discrete
Levels of Measurement, continued

 Categorical vs. Numerical

 Categorical: categories predetermined by researcher
 Exclusivity: answer categories should not overlap
 Exhaustivity
 Examples (demographic (ethnicity, marital status, income categories), Likert-type
attitude scales, semantic differential), frequency measures (once a week, once a
month, etc.)
 Types of categorical variables
 Nominal: no rank order implied; categories simply discrete (gender, ethnicity, religion, etc).
Considered weakest level of measurement
 Ordinal: rank order implied, for example, when age, income, education level, etc. are
measured not numerically but in categories where one end of the range is “higher” for the
researcher’s purposes. There is no information about the magnitude of differences. Often
ordinal scaled data like Likert or semantic differential data is treated in practice as if the
intervals between response categories were equal so more complex statistical analysis can be
applied
 Numerical: direct measurement in terms of numbers, amounts, frequencies with no
pre-conceived categories
 Examples: hours spent on the Internet weekly, absolute salary, age in years, miles
between cities, scores on some aptitude, IQ and personality tests, etc.
 Levels of Measurement, continued

 Types of numerical variables:

 Ratio level; numbers are assigned to identify ordered relations with respect
to some property ; there is an absolute zero amount of the property;
proportions are meaningful (e.g. travel in miles between two points, where
zero means the two points are the same, and 500 miles is twice as far as 250
miles, thus being isomorphic with relations in the real, physical world).
(But- on a test, 0% correct may not mean no amount of the property
measured by the test unless the test has a true random sample of all possible
indicators of the property)
 Interval level; numbers are assigned to identify ordered relations with
respect to some property, but no absolute zero; proportions not meaningful,
but distances are assumed to be equidistant between scale intervals. For
many communication variables, it is not reasonable to think of “zero”
amount of the property. What is zero amount of self-monitoring? Of
shyness? etc
Levels of Measurement, cont’d

 Categorical data can be treated numerically if the researcher

believes the categories are roughly equidistant (e.g. strongly
agree, agree distance is same as agree, neutral, and same as
strongly disagree, disagree)
 Numerical data can be treated as categorical. For example,
income, age, hours watching TV data can be collected
categorically for various reasons
 The level of measurement determines the type of statistical tests and procedures
which can be applied to the data. Statistics appropriate for numerical data (ratio,
interval) are not appropriately applied, for example, to nominal or ordinal data.
But data can be “scaled back” (e.g. taken back to a lower level of measurement)
and statistical procedures appropriate to, say, ordinal data can be applied (e.g.
change hours worked per week to categories such as none, some, lots, many)
 Hypotheses and Research Questions

 Hypotheses: hunches or expectations that social scientists have about

relationships between or among variables, commonly but not always
expressed as the expectation that variation in an independent variable will
“cause” or be associated with variation in a dependent variable. Some
examples from recent papers:
 “Local Mexican Web pages will reflect a higher level of collectivism than the
Mexican Web pages of American companies”
 “Internet users' concern for privacy online negatively influences their trust of a
commercial Web site”
 Hypotheses look different from research questions:
 RQ1. Does subject gender interact with medium in the development of relational
intimacy, and if so, how do these variables interact?




PRELIMINARY MATERIAL

• TITLE PAGE

• ABSTRACT

• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

• CONTENTS

• LIST OF TABLES

• LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

 BACKGROUND OF THE PROBLEM

 GENERAL STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

 STATEMENT OF OBJECTIVES, RESEACH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

 LIMITATIONS & DELIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

 DEFINITIONS OF THE STUDY

 ***SUMMARY

 ORGANISATION OF SUBSEQUENT CHAPTERS

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE

o PRIMARY SOURCES

o SECONDARY SOURCE

o *** SUMMARIZE

o Problem

o Design

o Sample

o Major findings

o Conclusions

o Critique ** SUMMARY
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLO

 RESEARCH DESIGN

POPULATION AND SAMPLE

DESCRIPTION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS

DATA COLLECTION

DATA ANALYSIS

SUMMARY
CHAPTER 4 FINDINGS

 DESCRIPTION OF SUBJECTS

 FINDINGS BASED ON EACH RESEARCH QUESTION & HYP

 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS

 SUMMARY
CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 CONCLUSIONS

 RECOMMENDATIONS

- REFERENCES

- APPENDICES
IDENTIFICATION OF A RESEARCH PROBLEM

 EXISTING THEORIES

 EXISTING LITERATURE

 DISCUSSIONS WITH EXPERTS

 PREVIOUS RESEARCH STUDY

 REPLICATION

 THE MEDIA

 PERONAL EXPERIENCES

 TOPICAL /CURRENT ISSUES

PROBLEM (S)

• A QUESTION OF INTEREST TO BUSINESS WHICH CAN BE ANS THRU DATA

COLLECTION

• Example: “WHAT FACTORS INFLUENCE CUSTOMERS’ CHOICE…….?

• DOES SOCIAL CLASS INFLUENCE ATTITUDES TOWARDS…..?

• IS THERE A RELNSHP BTWN ………

CHARACTERISTICS

• INVESTIGTED THRU COLL. & ANALY OF DATA

• CLEAR & CONCISE & UNAMBIGUOUS

• GENERATES A NO. OF SPECIFIC PROBLEMS

• BASIS IN RESEARCH LIT.

• POTENTIAL SIGNIFICANCE

• MANAGEABLE WITHIN TIME

• SUFFICIENT DATA
EXAMPLES OF RESEARCH PROBLEMS

1. Survey Research

2. Historical

3. Causal - comparative

4. Correlational

5. Experimental

6. Action
PURPOSE /SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

• IS THE CENTROID OF A RESEARCH STUDY: SHLD BE STATED CLEARLY

• AVOID USE OF VALUE LADEN , BIASED OR SUBJECTIVE WORDS:

• BIASED NEUTRAL
o To show to determine
o To prove to compare
o To confirm to investigate
o To verify to differentiate
o To check to explore
o To demonstarate to find out
o To indicate to examine
o To validate to inquire
o To explain to establish
o To illustrare to test
OBJECTIVES
• SPECIFIC ISSUES WITHIN THE SCOPE OF THE STATED PURPOSE TO BE EXAM
 HELPS TO KEEP THE SCOPE OF STUDY
 DEFINES THE AREA OF KNOWLEDGE

EXAMPLE:
Purpose:: The purpose of the study is to explore the influence of resource
management skills on performance of small scale businesses
owned by women in rural Zimbabwe
Objectives::
1. To identify the socio-economic status of small-scale businesswomen in..
2. To investigate the saving practices of women in rural…….
3. To investigate to financial management practices of women….
4. To determine the level of knowledge of management processes among..
5. To investigate the cources of information on the management processes..
HYPOTHESES
• RESEARCHER’S PREDICTION REGARDING THE OUTCOME OF THE STUDY
• STATES POSSIBL DIFFERENCES, RELATIONSHIPS OR CAUSES BTWN VARIABLES
OR CONCEPTS
• DERIVED OR BASED ON EXISTING THEORIES, PREVIOUS RESEARCH, PERSONAL
OBSERVATION OR EXPERIENCES

PURPOSES::
-Provide direction. Bridge the gap btwn problem and evidence
needed for the solution
-ensure collection of evidence necessary to answer the qn
-sensitize the investigator to certain aspects of the situation
-guide collection of data
-form the framework for ultimate conclusion
LIMITATIONS AND DELIMITATIONS

• LIMITATIONS::

• Aspects of a research that may influence results negatively

over which the researcher has no control, eg. Scope of study,

sample size.

***factors which can be controlled by the researcher shldn’t be included,

unless a good rational is provided.

DELIMITATIONS::

• Geographical and conceptual boundaries…..

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

• All variables that will be manipulated must be defined .

• Terms which convey different meanings to different people shld

be defined as well.

Subsequent Chapters

• Shows what the following chapters contain

(Summary form)
LITERATURE REVIEW
• Systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing
information related to the research problem being investigated.
• Shld be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed
knowledge of the topic being studied.

PURPOSE OF LR
• To determine what has been done already related to what is being studied
this helps the researcher to:
a) avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication
b) form the framework within which the research findings are to be
interpreted
c) demonstrate his/her familiarity with existing body of knowledge.
• Shows /reveals what strategies, procedures and instruments bn found
Useful in investigating the problem in question. Helps to avoid mistakes
made by other researchers also helps one benefit form others’
experiences helps clarify use of certain procedures.
• LR suggests other procedures and approaches
• LR makes the researcher familiar with previous studies and thus facilitate
interpretation of the results
• LR helps in determining new approaches and stimulates new ideas
• LR reveals approaches that have bn futile – so one can avoid such..
• LR other authors include specific suggestions and recommendations
for those planning further research
• LR pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in the area
ETHICAL ISSUES
No deception, be forthright and do not conceal the true purpose of the

 research

Maintain objectivity, courtesy and high professional standards through

 scientific process

No falsification, alteration or misrepresentation of data for political or

other purposes

Protect the confidentiality of the research subjects and research sponsors

No faulty conclusions

No inclusion or use of information or ideas contained in competing

 research proposals
 PLAGIARISM
SNC

1. The Ghost Writer

2. The Photocopy

3. The Potluck Paper

4. The Poor Disguise

5. The labour of Laziness

6. 1the self- Stealer

SC bt Plagiarised

1. The Forgotten Footnote

2. The Misinformer

3. The too perfect Prase

4. The Resourceful Citer

5. The Perfect Crime

www.plagiarism .org/learning_center/What_is_plagiarism quoted in Sakaran&Bougie

(2013,p57) - Research Methods for Business
Truthfulness in giving information to the researcher if a research subject

or respondent gives his or her consent to participate in a research study

Sustained cooperativeness with the researcher throughout the course

of the research study

Adhere to responsibility if informed consent is given to the researcher

State any constraints or limitations in advance

Exploratory Research:

undertaken with the aim of clarifying ambiguous problems

general problems usually known but not sufficiently understood

the purpose is to get more information, not to uncover specific courses

of action (subsequent research)

Determining a specific course of action to follow is not a

purpose of exploratory research!

Example: Child-Care support programme for employees

Descriptive Research:

undertaken with the aim of determining the characteristics of a population

or phenomenon
Previous knowledge of problem exists

High degree of precision or accuracy required

Examples:
Who are the main consumers of organic foods?
How many students read the prescribed course literature?
Where do most holiday-makers travelling overseas go?
When do petrol stations tend to raise their prices?
Causal Research:

undertaken with the aim of identifying cause and effect relationships

amongst variables are normally preceeded by exploratory and

descriptive research studies

Often difficult to determine because of the influence of other

variables (concommitant Variation and the presence of other hidden

variables)

Example: Higher ice-cream consumption causes more people to drown

(indicative of a causal relationship (?))

COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA: QUESTIONNAIRES

• ADV.

• Low cost (time & money)

• Inflow of data is quick & frm many pple

• Can be completed at a time and place of convenience

• Data analysis of closed qns relatively simple, easy to code

• Respondent ‘s anonymity is assured

• There is lack of interview bias.. (refer to the handout)

DESIGNING QUESTIONNAIRES

• DON’TS

• Prejudicial language – (sexist, disablist or racist, annoying qns

• Imprecision : - (average, regularly, a great deal …)

• Leading qns : - ( bias… why do u think the org has bn success in the..

• Double barrelled qns: - ( Do you like sadza and rice?)

• Assumptive qns: - (avoid qns that make assumptions abt pple’s belief

• Hypothetical qns: - ( supposed you were asked to…’

• Knowledge:
• Memory recall:

POINTS TO CONSIDER…

• Can the qns be misunderstood? Are they unclear/difficulty phraseology

• Is the wording biased? Is it emotionally loaded or slanted?

• Can the qns be asked in a more direct way or a more indirect form?

• It attention paid to detail (overlapping categories .. 30-35, 35-40)

• Do qns avoid taxing respondents’ memories?

• Can the qsn be shortened?

• Are categories such as ‘Don’t Know’ and ‘Not Appicable’ provide?

• Are the words or terms of the same meaning for all respondents

• Is personal wording preferable (hw do u feel) or impersonal( Hw d u thnk..

QUESTINNAIRE EVALUATION
1. State your age

Under20 20-25 25-30 Over 30

2. What are Ur views on Appraisals?

3. Do u consider apprsls to be vital for orgniztnl develpmnt or a way of wastng
time? Yes……. No………
4. Do you consider that appraisal should be:
• itergrated with traing plans so pple ar better trained
• Linked to the reward system so everyone earns more money
pls tick one
Wthout effective ‘best practice’ appraisal the organ cannot proper
Yes……. No…….
6. Give detils on the number of appraisals conducted withn the org over the

recent period

7. Hw many of your appraisals have you failed?

8. How often do you think pple shld be appraised

(a) once a year, (b) twice a year (c) once evry 2 yrs (d) never

(the scheme shld be abonded (e) other (pls specify)

Name:

Department:

Salary:

Complete and return.

EVALUATION

1. Ambiguous since categories overlap

2. Vague and probably unreliable
3. Double qns
4. Loaded qns
5. Double negative (even word ‘best practise’
6. Demands memory recall and knowledge
7. Impertinent
8. No instructions

• Qnniare contains no intro para or explaination of its purpose

• Asks for names, salary.
• Offers no assurances of confidentiality
• Does not explain what is going to be done with the information
• Unclear as to where and when it can be returned.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS

1. Open qns

e.g. What CUZ’s healthy living compaign do you find the most useful?

Please write in. _________________________________________

2. Closed qns.

List qns.

e.g. What do you think is the most important influence on the success of UZ

in the two years? Pls tick as many responses as you think accurate.

• Changes in admission policy affecting registration

• The coming up of new universities

• The impact of current organogram

Category qns.

How often in an average wk do you use e-banking facility? Pleae tick one

Response.

• Never

• Once

• 2-3 times

• 4-5 times

• 6 times or more
Ranking qns.

Please indicate in the boxes provided which features you believe are the

Most important when visiting CUZ (1 indicating the most important, 2 the next

Most important, etc) Please leave blank those features that have no importanc

At all.

• Ease parking

• Friendly staff

• Variety of progams

• Other (please specify)

Scale qns.

As a student of CUZ we would like to know your views on the service we

provide. Please put one tick for each of the following statements

SA A UnD DisA SD

I have been plsd with the prompt response

service I get from Admin.

Tuition fees has been competitive with other

colleges.
Continuum scale

Please circle one number that reflects your opinion of our helpline support

quick 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 slow

Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Discourteous

Informative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Confusing
ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF OPEN & CLOSED QNS.

Open qns

Adv

• Fredom and spontaneity of the ans

• Opportunity to probe

• Useful for testing hypotheses abt ideas or awareness

Disadv

• Time consuming

• In interviews: costly in terms of time

• Demand more effort from respondents

Closed Qns

Adv
• Require little time
• No extended writing
• Low cost
• Easy to process
• Comparison easy
• Useful for testing specific hypothesis

DisAdv
• Loss of spontaneous response
• Bias in answer categories
• Sometimes too crude
• May irritate respondents
Do you read the CUZ newsletter?

Yes No

Do u read it freqntly? It it becoz it hasn’t bn delivered to you?

Yes No No Yes

What factors Wld u like it delivered

Encourage you
to read the NL

What articles would

encourage you to
read it more?
DEVELOPING A DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

• Step 1 define the objective of your instrument

• Step 2 Identify the intended respondents

• Step 3 review existing measures

• Step 4 Develop an item pool

• Step 5 prepare and pilot test the prototype

• Step 6 conduct a item analysis and revise the measure

ANALYSING AND PRESENTING QUAN DATA

DATA

QUANTIFIABLE
CATEGORICAL

NOMINAL ORDINAL INTERVAL RATIO

degree of precision
****GIGO
CATEGORIZING DATA

CATEGORICAL DATA - cannot be quantified numerically but are

either placed into sets or categories (nominal data) or

ranked in some way (ordinal data)

QUANTIFIABLE DATA - can be measured numerically, which means

that they are more precise, within the this classification, there

are two additional categories of interval and ratio data.

NOMINAL DATA -Constitute a name value or category with no order or
rankng implied eg, sales dept, occupational descriptors of employees

.g. Which category describes where the employee works? Tick one
Retail department
Warehouse
Accounts
Personnel

Department/Location frequency
Retail department 60
Warehouse 15
Accounts 16
Personnel 62
ORDINAL DATA - Comprises an ordering or ranking of values

although the intervals between the ranks are not intended to be equal
e.g.
How often have you felt like insulting a customer? (tick one)
everyday
once a week
sometimes
never

Staff tendency to insult customers No. of Responses

evry day 10
once a week 15
sometimes 11
never 4
INTERVAL DATA - Numerical values are assigned along an
Interval scale with equal intervals, e.g.
scores frequency
76-80 1
81-85 0
91-95 4
96-100 21
RATIO DATA - are a subset of interval data, and the

scale is again interval, but there is an absolute zero that represents some

meaning, for example, scores on an achievement test

scores frequency

0-4 4

5-9 13

10-14 15
DATA ENTRY, LAYOUT AND QUALITY

Data entry involves a number of stages, beginning with ‘cleaning’ the data,

Planning and implementing the actual input of the data.

• CLEANING

• DATA CODING AND LAYOUT

• DEALING WITH MISSING DATA

• AVOIDING DEGRADATION OF DATA

 DRAFT RESEARCH QNS

HYPOTHETICAL EXPLANATION OF RQ.

EXPLORATION OF CASES

DEVISNT CASE FOUND NO DEVIANT CASES –

HYPOTHESIS CONFIRMED

REFORMULATE HYPO HYPO

redefined to
exclude deviant
case

End of examination cases

STEPS IN THE CODING PROCESS

• Unlike Quant data, QuaL

• Analysis has no hard and fast rules for how data

shld be coded. However, the following is important to do:

• Transcribe the data

• Collect/ code/collect

• familiarization

• Focused reading

• Review /amend codes

• Generating theory
• SECONDARY DATA - to perform additional, in-depth analysis

• REFLEXIVITY – (THE VOICE OF THE RESEARCHER – EPIST & PERSONAL)

 DESCRIBING

QUAL.
ANALYSIS
CONNECTING
CLASSIFYING
CONTENT ANALYSIS

• Making of inferences abt data by systematically and objectively

identifying special characteristic (categories/classes) within

them.

• Criteria of selection

• Common classes

• Special classes

• Theoretical classes
GROUNDED THEORY*****

OPEN CODING - Disaggregation o the data into units

Axial coding - recognizin relationships btwn categories

Selective coding - the integration of categories to produce

SUMMARY

1. QUAL DATA CAN HAVE A QUALITY OF ‘UNDENIABILITY COZ…..

2. SEEKS FOR PPLE’S ACTS AND THEIR ACCOUNT

3. CONTENT ANALYSIS AND GROUNDED THEORY

4. DUE TO LACK OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING METHODS, QUAL

ANALYSIS IS OPEN TO ACCUSATIONS OF INVALIDITY

(ELICIT THE VIEWS OF PARTICIPANTS)

5. RELIABILITY OF QUAL. RESEARCH

6. CAQDAS -http://caqdas.soc.surrey.ac.uk/index.htm

www.scolari.co.uk
6. ANALYSIS OCCURS THRUOUT THE DATA COLLECTION PROCESS

7. SYSTEMATIC AND COMPREHENSIVE BUT NOT RIGID

8. READING ALL THE DATA AT ONCE THEN DIVIDING INTO MANAGEABLE UNITS

9. DATA SEGMENTS ARE ORGANISED INTO A SYSTEM THAT IS PREDOMINATELY

DERIVED FROM THE DATA

10. MAIN ANALYTIC PROCESS IS COMPARISON

11. CATEGORIES ARE FLEXIBLE

12. NOT MECHANISTIC

13. ANALYSIS RESUL IS SOME TYPE OF HIGHER ORDER SYNTHESIS

5. SUMMARY , CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

• AN OVERVIEW OF THE RESEACH PROJECT TO THE POINT OF FINDINGS.

• CONCLUSIONS BASED OF THE FINDINGS, IN NARRATIVE FORM OR IN

POINT FORMS … NUMBERED ANSWERING SPECIFIC QUESTIONS

ULTIMATELY THE PROBLEM

• RECOMMENDATIONS IN THE DIRECTION POINTED TO BY FINDINGS

TO EACH STAKEHOLDER (… ITS POSSIBLE EACH ONE WILL BE

ADDRESSED ACCORDING TO SPECIFIC NEED)

BIBLIOGRAPHY / REFERENCE LIST

• IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER

• NO WEBSITES ENTRIES…

• CURRENT SOURCES

APPENDICES

• QUESTIONNAIRE

• LETTERS

• ANY OTHER USEFUL INFORMATION

 Proposal to study

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN FINANCIAL SECTOR

DEVELOPMENT AND ECONOMIC GROWTH

By

FILO GUDU

JUNE 2007
BACKGROUND

 This explains the concepts:

 University education
 Employee productivity
 Linkage
 Object of the research/setting
 Banking industry
 PROBLEM STATEMENT

 This is the origin of the research

 This needs to be clearly defined
 The structure involves two things
 Preamble
 Questions
 You need to paint a picture
 Then the questions will be natural consequence
PROBLEM STATEMENT

 The preamble provides grounds to raise the

questions
 Example
 Competition in banking industry
 The role of employees in organisation
 Concerns about employee productivity
 Ways to increase productivity e.g. education, traning
PROBLEM STATEMENT

 Questions
 These are the issues that agitate your mind for which you want to find solutions to
 State the issue in question form
 Major question
 The main issue in question form
 Specific questions
 Other issues within the main issue that are components of the main issue
 State these in question form
PROBLEM STATEMENT

 Example
 Main/major question
 What is the relationship between between university education and employee productivity in the
banking industry in Zimbabwe?
 Specific questions
 What is the trend of productivity in the banking industry
 What is the trend of university graduates employment in the banking industry
OBJECTIVES

 This what you have set to achieve

 The problem well stated helps to build your objectives
 These should be positive statement of the questions
 Major objective
 Specific objectives
OBJECTIVES

 Example
 Major objective
 To analyse the relationship between university education and employee productivity
 Specific objective
 Determine the trend of employee productivity in the banking industry
 Determine the trend of graduate employment in the baking industry
OBJECTIVES

 An alternative
 Determine the trend of employee productivity in the banking industry
 Determine the trend of graduate employment in the baking industry
 Assess the linkage between university education and employee productivity in
the banking industry
METHODOLOGY

 This describes the steps to be traced in achieving the objectives

 This has been covered already hopefully.
 RELEVANCE

 This section outlines the importance of the study

 Guide
 Importance of the concepts
 Importance of the linkage
 Importance of study to:
 private sector
 Public sector
 Researchers
 Policy makers
RELEVANCE

 If you need funding for the study by a donor this is where you need to
provide reasons why you should be funded.
 For student research it is also important to provide cogent reasons
ORGANISATION OF THE
STUDY

 How the chapters will be organised

 You need not tabulate them
 Don’t provide the details of the subsections.
 in the proposal you can capture chapter one
 But in paper don’t include chapter one
Example

 “The study will be presented in five chapters. Chapter two will present review of
relevant literature. The methodology to achieve the objectives is outlined in chapter
three. Chapter four presents the results and the accompanying discussions. The
conclusions and recommendations are distilled in chapter five.”
ACTION PLAN

 This details:
 Activities
 Dates to be completed
 Forms bass of budget if needed.
After the Proposal

 Cut-off the methodology section

 What is left constitutes chapter one-INTRODUCTION
 The methodology section becomes chapter three-METHODOLOGY
EVALUATION OF RESEARCH REPORTS

1. INTRODUCTION

a) does the researcher describe the circumstances and reasons that have

influenced the choice?

b) Does the researcher show that there is a gap in knowledge?

Is the research based on what others have done or not done?

c) To what extend will the study contribute to the expansion of knowledge?

d) Is the research Problem stated clearly and delimited and limited?

e) Does the researcher clarify the research problem by stating specific

reseach questions, objectives and hypothesis [if appropriate….)

f) Does the researcher indicate why the study is important?

g) Are terms clearly defined?

2. REVIEW OF LITERATURE

a) Does the researcher present an up-to-date RRL?

b) Is the relationship btwn RRL and the problem clear?

c) To what extend are the main elements of LR included?

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

a) Does the researcher use appropriate design?

b) Has the researcher identified the target population?

c) Does the researcher describe the sample and method used to sample

participating institutions and respondents?

d) Are sample sizes sufficient to avoid substantial random errors?

e) Did the researcher use appropriate research instruments?

f) Does the research describe methods to determine reliability and validity?

g) Are instruments described in some detail?

h) Are procedures for data collection described?

i) Does the researcher use appropriate data analysis procedures ?

4. FINDINGS

a) Are the findings based on specific research questions/objectives/hypothesis

b) Does the research discuss and interpret the findings?

5. CONCLUSIONS ND RECOMMENDATIONS

Are the researcher’s conclusions and recommendations sound?

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Is it current, in alphabetical order and correctly referenced?

PRELIMINARY PAGES

• TITLE PAGE

FULL TITLE ODF DISSERTATION, FULL NAME OF AUTHOUR, THE DEGREE

FOR WHICH DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED, THE UNIVERSITY TO WHICH

DISSERTATION IS SUBMITTED AND YEAR OF SUBMISSION.

• CERTIFICATION PAGE

Page contains two statements. (1) attestation of originality by author

(2) approval by university supervisors

• DEDICATION PAGE

THIS SHLD BE A BRIEF STATEMENT

• ABSTRACT

EACH DISSERTATION SHLD HAV AN ABSTRACT OF ONE PAGE

A SUMMARY OF THE FOLLOWING:

BACKGROUND

STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

RESEARCH QUESTIONS

RESEACH METHODOLOGY

MAIN FINDINGS

CONCLUSIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS

• ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ASSISTANTANCE GIVEN BY VARIOUS PPLE IN THE CAUSE OF

CONDUCTING A STUDY

• TABLE OF CONTENTS

CONTENTS OF THE DISSERTATION

• LIST OF FIGURES/TABLES

A COMPLETE LIST OF TABLES INDICATING TITLES AND PAGES WHERE

THEY APPEAR SHLD BE GIVEN IN A NUMERICAL ORDER