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How Do Metals Respond To External Loads?: Mechanical Properties of Metals Chapter 6 Outline
How Do Metals Respond To External Loads?: Mechanical Properties of Metals Chapter 6 Outline
Chapter 6 Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?
Introduction
Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion
Stress
(For Tension and Compression)
To compare specimens , the load is
calculated per unit area.
Stress: = F / Ao
F: is load
A0: cross-sectional area
A0 perpendicular to F before
application of the load.
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 4
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Strain
(For Tension and Compression)
Strain: = l / lo ( 100 %)
l: change in length
lo: original length.
Stress / strain = /
Shear stress: = F / Ao
F is applied parallel to upper and
lower faces each having area A0.
Shear Torsion
Torsion
Torsion
Shear
Stress-Strain Behavior
(Tension)
Elastic
Plastic
Elastic deformation
Reversible:
( For small strains)
Stress
Stress removed
material returns to
original size
Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Strain Stress removed
material does not return
to original dimensions.
Elastic deformation
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress
= E
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
(same units as , N/m2 or Pa)
Unload
Slope = modulus of
Stress
elasticity E
Load
Strain
Definitions of E
High
Attractive is
Strongly positive here
modulus
bonded
Force, F
Separation, r
Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded
E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
F= (sign) dV/dr
E~ curvature of potential
at equilibrium, r0
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 11
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)
Poisson’s ratio
Unloaded Loaded
Poisson’s ratio
x y
z z
dimensionless.
Sign:
lateral strain opposite to longitudinal
strain
Theoretical value:
for isotropic material: 0.25
Shear Modulus
y
Zo
Unloaded
Loaded
= tan = y / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)
Elastic Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio
and
Shear Modulus
Plastic deformation
(Tension)
Plastic deformation:
• stress not proportional to strain
• deformation is not reversible
• deformation occurs by breaking and re-
arrangement of atomic bonds (crystalline
materials by motion of defects)
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 17
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
y
Yield point: P
Where strain deviates from
Stress
P
being proportional to stress
(the proportional limit)
Strain
Yield strength: y
0.002 Permanent strain= 0.002
A measure of resistance
to plastic deformation
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 18
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Strain
For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain
curve includes both an upper and lower
yield point.
The yield strength is defined in this case as
the average stress at the lower yield point.
Tensile Strength
Fracture
Strength
Stress,
“Necking”
Tensile strength =
max. stress
(~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
Strain,
lf l0
%EL 100
percent elongation l0
or
A0 Af
percent reduction in %RA 100
area A0
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 21
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Toughness
True Stress
T = F/Ai T = ln(li/lo)
= F/Ao = (li-lo/lo)
True Strain
y
y
Hardness (I)
Hardness measure of material’s resistance
to localized plastic deformation
(e.g. dent or scratch)
Moh’s scale ability of a material to scratch
another material: from 1 (softest = talc) to 10
(hardest = diamond).
Variety of hardness tests
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Small indenter (sphere, cone, or
pyramid) forced into surface of
material under controlled
magnitude and rate of loading.
Depth or size of indentation is
measured.
Tests are approximate, but
popular because they are easy and
non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 26
Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Hardness (II)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Strain
Design stress:
d = N’c : c = maximum anticipated stress,
N’ the “design factor” > 1.
Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
Anelasticity
Ductility
Elastic deformation
Elastic recovery
Engineering strain
Engineering stress
Hardness
Modulus of elasticity
Plastic deformation
Poisson’s ratio
Proportional limit
Shear
Tensile strength
Toughness
Yielding
Yield strength