Material Properties

Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals
Chapter 6 Outline
Mechanical Properties of Metals
How do metals respond to external loads?
 Stress and Strain

 Tension
 Compression
 Shear
 Torsion
 Elastic deformation
 Plastic Deformation
 Yield Strength
 Tensile Strength
 Ductility
 Toughness
 Hardness
Not tested: true stress-true stain relationships, resilience, details
of the different types of hardness tests, variability of material
properties
University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 1
Introduction
How materials deform as a function of

applied load 
Testing methods and language for
mechanical properties of materials.
Stress,  (MPa)
Strain,  (mm / mm)

Types of Loading
Tensile
Compressive
Shear
Torsion

Stress
(For Tension and Compression)
To compare specimens , the load is
calculated per unit area.
Stress:  = F / Ao
F: is load
A0: cross-sectional area
A0 perpendicular to F before
application of the load.
Strain
(For Tension and Compression)
Strain:  = l / lo ( 100 %)
l: change in length
lo: original length.
Stress / strain = / 

Shear and Torsion
Shear stress:  = F / Ao
F is applied parallel to upper and
lower faces each having area A0.
Shear strain:  = tan ( 100 %)

 is strain angle
Shear Torsion

Torsion
Torsion: like shear.
Load: applied torque, T

Strain: angle of twist, .
Torsion
Shear

Stress-Strain Behavior
(Tension)
Elastic
Plastic
Elastic deformation
Reversible:
( For small strains)
Stress
Stress removed 
material returns to
original size
Plastic deformation
Irreversible:
Strain Stress removed 
material does not return
to original dimensions.

Elastic deformation
Gives Hooke's law for Tensile Stress
 = E
E = Young's modulus or modulus of elasticity
(same units as , N/m2 or Pa)
Unload
Slope = modulus of
Stress
elasticity E
Load
Strain
Higher E  higher “stiffness”

Nonlinear elastic behavior

In some materials (many polymers,
concrete...), elastic deformation is not
linear, but it is still reversible.
/ = tangent modulus at 2
Definitions of E
/ = secant modulus

between origin and 1

Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale

Chapter 2: Potentials and Force
High
Attractive is
Strongly positive here
modulus
bonded
Force, F
Separation, r
Low
modulus
Weakly
bonded
E ~ (dF/dr) at ro
F= (sign) dV/dr 
E~ curvature of potential
at equilibrium, r0
Anelasticity
(time dependence of elastic deformation)
• Have assumed elastic deformation is time

independent
(applied stress produces instantaneous
strain)
• Elastic deformation takes time; can

continue even after load release.
This behavior is known as anelasticity.
• Small effect in metals; can be significant

for polymers (visco-elastic).

Poisson’s ratio
Unloaded Loaded
Tension  shrink laterally

Compression  bulge.
Ratio of lateral to axial strain called

Poisson's ratio .

Poisson’s ratio
x y
 
z z
 dimensionless.
Sign:
lateral strain opposite to longitudinal
strain
Theoretical value:
for isotropic material: 0.25
Maximum value: 0.50,

Typical value: 0.24 - 0.30
Shear Modulus
y
Zo
Unloaded
Loaded

Shear stress to shear strain:

 = G ,
 = tan = y / zo
G is Shear Modulus (Units: N/m2)

Elastic Modulus
Poisson’s Ratio
and
Shear Modulus
For isotropic material:

E = 2G(1+)  G ~ 0.4E
Single crystals are usually elastically

anisotropic
Elastic behavior varies with

crystallographic direction.

Plastic deformation
(Tension)
Plastic deformation:
• stress not proportional to strain
• deformation is not reversible
• deformation occurs by breaking and re-
arrangement of atomic bonds (crystalline
materials by motion of defects)
Tensile properties: Yielding

Elastic Plastic
y
Yield point: P
Where strain deviates from
Stress
P
being proportional to stress
(the proportional limit)
Strain
Yield strength: y
0.002 Permanent strain= 0.002
A measure of resistance
to plastic deformation
Tensile properties: Yielding

Stress
Strain
For a low-carbon steel, the stress vs. strain
curve includes both an upper and lower
yield point.
The yield strength is defined in this case as
the average stress at the lower yield point.

Tensile Strength
If stress maintained specimen will break
Fracture
Strength
Stress, 
“Necking”
Tensile strength =
max. stress
(~ 100 - 1000 MPa)
Strain, 
Yield stress, y , usually more important than

tensile strength. Once yield stress has been passed,
structure has deformed beyond acceptable limits.
Tensile properties: Ductility
Ductility  Deformation at Fracture
 lf  l0 
%EL    100
percent elongation  l0 
or
 A0  Af 
percent reduction in %RA    100
area  A0 
Mechanical Properties of Metals
Yield strength and tensile strength vary

with thermal and mechanical treatment,
impurity levels, etc.
Variability related to behavior of
dislocations (Elastic moduli are relatively
insensitive)
Yield and tensile strengths and modulus of
elasticity: Decrease with increasing
temperature.
Ductility increases with temperature.
Toughness
Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to

fracture (Area under the strain-stress curve
up to fracture)
Units: the energy per unit volume, e.g. J/m3
Can be measured by an impact test (Chapter 8).
True Stress and Strain
True Stress
T = F/Ai T = ln(li/lo)
 = F/Ao  = (li-lo/lo)
True Strain
True stress: load divided by actual area in the

necked-down region, continues to rise to the point
of fracture, in contrast to the engineering stress.
Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation
y
y
Deformed plastically, stress released, material has

permanent strain.
If stress is reapplied, material again responds

elastically at the beginning up to a new yield point
that is higher than the original yield point.
Elastic strain before reaching the yield point is

called elastic strain recovery.
Hardness (I)
Hardness measure of material’s resistance
to localized plastic deformation
(e.g. dent or scratch)
Moh’s scale  ability of a material to scratch
another material: from 1 (softest = talc) to 10
(hardest = diamond).
Variety of hardness tests
(Rockwell, Brinell, Vickers, etc.).
Small indenter (sphere, cone, or
pyramid) forced into surface of
material under controlled
magnitude and rate of loading.
Depth or size of indentation is
measured.
Tests are approximate, but
popular because they are easy and
non-destructive (except for the
small dent).
Hardness (II)
Tensile strength (MPa)
Tensile strength (103 psi)

Brinell hardness number
Tensile strength and hardness  degree of

resistance to plastic deformation.
Hardness proportional to tensile strength
Proportionality constant depends on material.

What are the limits of “safe” deformation?

Stress
For practical engineering design,

the yield strength is usually the
important parameter
Strain
Design stress:
d = N’c : c = maximum anticipated stress,
N’ the “design factor” > 1.
Make sure d < y, safe or working stress:

w = y/N where N is “factor of safety” > 1.
Summary
Make sure you understand language and concepts:
 Anelasticity
 Ductility
 Elastic deformation
 Elastic recovery
 Engineering strain
 Engineering stress
 Hardness
 Modulus of elasticity
 Plastic deformation
 Poisson’s ratio
 Proportional limit
 Shear
 Tensile strength
 Toughness
 Yielding
 Yield strength

Reading for next class:

Chapter 7: Dislocations and Strengthening Mechanisms
 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

 Motion of dislocations in response to stress
 Slip Systems
 Plastic deformation in
 single crystals
 polycrystalline materials
 Strengthening mechanisms
 Grain Size Reduction
 Solid Solution Strengthening
 Strain Hardening
 Recovery, Recrystallization, and Grain Growth
Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):

7.7 Deformation by twinning
In our discussion of slip systems, §7.4, we will not get into
direction and plane nomenclature

Material Properties

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Introduction To Materials Science, Chapter 6, Mechanical Properties of Metals

 Stress and Strain

How materials deform as a function of

Strain,  (mm / mm)

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 3

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 5

Shear and Torsion

Shear strain:  = tan ( 100 %)

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 6

Torsion: like shear.

Load: applied torque, T

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 7

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 8

Higher E  higher “stiffness”

Nonlinear elastic behavior

/ = tangent modulus at 2

/ = secant modulus

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 10

Elastic Deformation: Atomic scale

• Have assumed elastic deformation is time

• Elastic deformation takes time; can

• Small effect in metals; can be significant

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 12

Tension  shrink laterally

Ratio of lateral to axial strain called

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 13

Maximum value: 0.50,

Shear stress to shear strain:

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 15

For isotropic material:

Single crystals are usually elastically

Elastic behavior varies with

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 16

Tensile properties: Yielding

Tensile properties: Yielding

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 19

If stress maintained specimen will break

Yield stress, y , usually more important than

Tensile properties: Ductility

Ductility  Deformation at Fracture

Mechanical Properties of Metals

Yield strength and tensile strength vary

Toughness: ability to absorb energy up to

True Stress and Strain

True stress: load divided by actual area in the

Elastic Recovery During Plastic Deformation

Deformed plastically, stress released, material has

If stress is reapplied, material again responds

Elastic strain before reaching the yield point is

Tensile strength (103 psi)

Tensile strength and hardness  degree of

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 27

What are the limits of “safe” deformation?

For practical engineering design,

Make sure d < y, safe or working stress:

University of Virginia, Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering 29

Reading for next class:

 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

Optional reading (Part that is not covered / not tested):

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