Research-Methodology Lecture Notes

‫بسم الله الرحمن‬
‫الرحيم‬
Willkommen
Bienvenue
Welcome
yôkoso welkom
‫أه‬ Soo dhawaada
Bienvenida tervetuloa
ً ‫ال‬
Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 2
GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering
Departments of Electric
Engineering
Research Methodology
Semester 6th 2017
Eng.Abdifatah Omar Abdillahi

About the Course
Course title: Research Methodology
Credit hours: 3

Course Content
1 • Introduction to Research
• Title Identification and

2 Research Problem
3 • Literature Review
4 • Research Design
Course Content
• Data Analysis and
5 Interpretation – Theoretical
and Practical perspectives
6
• How to write Conclusion and
Recommendation
7 • Formatting Research
Reference Books
Kumar, Ranjit. (2014). C. R. Kothari. (1985).
Research Methodology: A Step by Step
Guide for Beginners
Research mythology: Methods and
Techniques

Course design
Research
Practical Research
writings Methodology
Statistical
packages
Methods vs.
Methodology
Problem vs.
Introduction hypothesis
Research
Data
analysi
Research Literature
review
s Methodology
Variable Samplin
s g
Data
collection
Statistical packages
SPSS Excel
• Data entry • Data
• Analysis presentation

Course delivery
Lectures shall be the principle delivery
method.
Discussions
Class works

Course evaluation methods
 Attendance & participation 6%
 Class works 10%
 Research proposal 24%
 Final exam 60%

Let us begin 

Contents of Research paper
Chapter One: Introduction
Chapter Two: Literature Review
Chapter Three: Research Design
Chapter Four: Data presentation and analysis
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations

Chapter I: Introduction
 Introduction
 Background
 Problem statement
 Research objectives
 Significance of the study
 Scope of the study
 Description of the study area/Organization
 Limitation
Chapter II: Literature Review
In this chapter, students are required to
define relevant key concepts.
It is about to copy and paste, but the

purpose is to review and examine, to
some extent.

Chapter III: Research Design
 Variable Definition/Operationalization of Variables
 Research Types
 Research Approach
 Sample Design
◦ Population
◦ Sample size
◦ Sampling techniques
 Sources of Data
 Data Collection Instruments
 Data Presentation Tools
 Data Analysis and Interpretation
 Ethical ConsiderationTuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 17
Chapter IV: Data Analysis and Interpretation
Data Presentation using Tables, Charts
or Figures and Narrations
Proper Labels and Captions
Interpretation

Chapter V: Conclusion and
Recommendation
 Introduction - a brief on the chapter
 Conclusions - a summary drive from the research

findings
 Recommendations - should be derived from the

conclusions

GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Engineering
Chapter One:
Introduction to Research

Session outline
 Definition of Research
 Why conduct research?
 Types of Researches
 Approaches of Research
 Research Methodology Vs. Research Methods

Research defined
 Scholars define research in different ways.
 Research is defined as
◦ A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

◦ A search for knowledge through objective and
systemic method of finding solutions to a
problem or systematic approach concerning
generalization and formulation of a theory
 Once can also define research as a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a
specific topic.

Why conduct research?
◦ To discover answers to questions through the
application of scientific procedures
◦ To find out the truth which is hidden and

which has not been discovered yet.

What are the Objectives of Research?
The prime objectives of research are:
 to discover new facts

to verify and test important facts
to analyse an event or process or phenomenon
to identify the cause and effect relationship

Cont…
to develop new scientific tools, concepts and

theories
to solve and understand scientific and
nonscientific problems
to overcome or solve the problems occurring

in our every day life.

Types of Researches
 Types of researches include
◦ Descriptive and analytical research
◦ Applied research and fundamental research
◦ Quantitative research and qualitative research
◦ Other types of research

Descriptive and analytical researches
 As it implies, descriptive type of research
◦ Offers a detailed picture or account of some
social phenomenon, group, etc.
 It involves an attempt to identify, determine or

describe something.
 It includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of

different kinds
 As its main characteristics, descriptive researches

reports only what has happened or what is
happening Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 27
Cont'…
 Analytical research involves the use of facts and
information already available for the researcher
and analyzing it to make critical information of
material.
 Analytical refers to establishing why something

occurs or how it came to be.

Applied and basic researches
 Applied research is a research that discovers a
solution for some pressing practical problem,
facing a society, business organization or country
 Basic research is also known as pure or
fundamental research.
 It directs towards finding information that has a

broad base of applications and thus adds to the
already existing organized body of scientific
knowledge.
 Itis undertaken for the sake of knowledge without
any intention to apply it in practice
Cont'…
• The distinction between them is in the application
– Basic research has little application to real world
policy and management but could be done to
guide applied research

Approaches of Research
 There are two basic approaches to
research namely:
 Quantitative approach
 Qualitative approach

1) Quantitative Approach
 Quantitative approach of research involves the
generation of data in quantitative form which can
be subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis in a
formal and rigid fashion.
 Qualitative approach is concerned with subjective

assessment of attitudes, opinions and behavior.
Research in such a situation is a function of
researchers’ insights and impression.
 A mixture of methods may be used.
 Researchers may seek to increase reliability and
validity by using both quantitative and qualitative
approaches. This isTuesday,
called triangulation!
July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 32
Similarities
 Both do researches.
 Both methods use observations as their tools.
 Both use sampling procedures.
 Both use interview guide in their research

instruments.

Differences
 Informationdealt - quantitative research involve
numerical whereas quantitative are the opposite.
 Methods of analysis - qualitative researches use

descriptive analysis through words whilst
quantitative researches use statistical analysis

Research methods and research
methodology
 Research methods are all methods or techniques
that are used for conducting a research.
◦ Put differently, research method is all about design of

research techniques
 Methods refers to the techniques researcher use to

collect and analyze data. It is the specific techniques,
tools or procedures applied to achieve a given
objective.

Con't
 Research methods can be put into the following three
groups:-
1. Methods concerning with the collection of data. These
methods will be used where the data already available
are not sufficient to arrive at the required solution.
2. Methods of statistical techniques used for establishing
relationship between the data and the unknowns.
3. Methods used to evaluate the accuracy of the results
obtained.
 Note: The last two groups are generally taken as
“analytical tools of research”

Research methodology
 Methodology refers to the study of the general
approach to inquiry in a given field
◦ Therefore, Research methodology is a way to

systematically solve the research problem.
 It can also be said as a science of studying how

research is done scientifically.
 Of course, it is necessary for the researcher to know not

only the research methods/techniques but also the
methodology.
Cont'…
 Research methodology studies
◦ Various steps in studying research problem and logic
behind them.
◦ Method or technique relevant and which are not.
◦ Assumptions underlying various techniques.
◦ Criteria by which researchers can decide that certain
techniques and procedures will be applicable to
certain problem.
 Research methodology has many dimension and

research methods do constitute a part of the research
methodology.

GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Engineering
Chapter Two:
Title Identification and Research
Problem

Research problem defined
Research problem refers to some difficulty
which a researcher experiences in the context
of either a theoretical or practical situation
and wants to obtain a solution for the same.

When does a research problem exist?
 Research problem exists if the following conditions
are met.
◦ Some difficulty problem facing by an individual
or group or institution etc
◦ Need to attain objectives
 Availability of alternative means (or courses of

action) for obtaining the objectives one wishes to
attain (i.e. at least two means should be available)
 Some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard

to the selection of alternatives.
Sources of a research problem
Individuals,
People organizations, groups,
communities etc
Issues, situations, needs,
Problem
profiles, etc
Contents, structure,
Program outcomes, satisfaction, etc

Selecting the problem
 As a researcher, note that
◦ Topic which is overdone should not be
normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to
throw any new light in such a case.
◦ The topic selected for research needs

familiarity and feasibility so that the related
research material or sources of research are
within one’s reach.

Cont'…
◦ Controversial subject should not become the
choice of an average researcher.
◦ Too narrow or too vague problems should be

avoided.
◦ Take into account the importance of the subject,

the qualifications and the training of a
researcher, the costs involved, time factor

Cont'…
1. Identify the problem in a general way.
2. Identify and select a narrow problem within the

broad topic.
3. Raise questions to be asked.
4. Formulate objectives

Cont'…
1. Identify a broad field/area that faces
problem
Human
Resource
Management

Cont'…
2. Divide the broad area or field into
sub-divisions
Selection Motivation
Recruitment
Human Resource Promotion
Management
Placement
and Performance
induction Training and appraisal
Development
Cont'…
3. Select the one that interests you the most
Selection Motivation
Recruitment
Human Resource Promotion
Management
Placement
and Performance
induction Training and appraisal
Development
Cont'…
4. Raise research questions
Assessment on Promotion Practices in Public
Institutions
 What is the promotion process followed in public
institutions?
 What are the laws guiding promotion process of public

servants?
 How is promotion performed in public institutions?

Exercise 1
Sit in groups and choose a topic

of your interest?

Research objectives
 Research objectives determines your destination
 Have a path to walk on throughout your thesis work.

 Itis split into two
◦ General objectives – statement that tells the overall
aim of undertaking a given topic.
◦ Specific objectives – provides sub-ways of

attaining the above mentioned general objectives.
These should be very SMART
 Ifresearch objectives are devised with the thesis, no

need to have research questions.
Cont'…
5. Set research objectives
General objective:
 To evaluate promotion patterns in public institutions
Specific objectives:
 To point out procedures followed to promote public
servants
 To evaluate laws guiding promotion in public
institutions
 To examine how promotion is done practically

Cont'…
6. Check & double check your research objectives
 How much work is involved?
 Do I have time?
 Do I have the resources?
 Do I have the technical expertise?
 Am I really interested?
 Do I agree with the objectives?

Title Selection
 The title is the doorway to the proposal.
 Must be
- Simple and catching words.
- Clear, concise, specific, self explanatory and stated

in one sentence (15 to 20 words are recommended).
 The purpose of the study should be implied from the
title.
 Your research title must also clearly depict variables

involved. Both Dependent and Independent variables
must be clear.
Exercise 2
Reframe your topic based on the
title selection criteria.
Compare these topics with the

title requirements

Problem Statement
 Clearstatement of what the situation looks like,
and what problems you perceive in the area, and to
conduct the research.

Cont'…
“The formulation of the
problem is often more
essential than its solution.”
Albert Einstein

Cont'…
 Ideally, it must address problems that induced a
researcher to select and take topic for his/her thesis.
 Of course, it is effortless to outline problems burning a

researcher, but what makes it unique is the extent to
which it carries facts and figures from credible
sources.
 Good problem statements may contain three concepts

spread over between 3 to 5 paragraphs

Exercise 3
Write a problem statement for
your research topic

Objectives of the Study
 General objectives
◦ What is the general reason for carrying out this
research? This should be at the level of the aim of
the study. In most of the cases, it is your topic
written in the form of an objective
 Specific objectives
◦ These emanate from the general objectives. Specific
objective must be SMART. By using action verbs,
the researcher must list at least three specific
objectives to achieve the general objective

Exercise 4
Based on your research topic,
write at least three specific
objectives

Your research objectives determines your
type of research
 Even though each research study has its own
specific purpose, objectives of research may fall in
any of the following groups
◦ Exploratory or formulative
◦ Descriptive
◦ Diagnostic
◦ Hypothesis testing
Cont'…
 To gain familiarity with a situation or achieve new
insights (i.e exploratory or formulative)
 To draw accurately characteristics of an individual or
group (i.e Descriptive research). For example, who
are the main consumers of cosmatics? when do petrol
stations tend to raise their prices?
 To determine the frequency with which something

occurs or with which it is associated with something
else (i.e Diagnostic)
 Totest a hypothesis of a casual relationship between

variables (i.e Hypothesis testing)
Significance of the study
 Significanceof the study is also called justification or
importance of the study.
 State why you feel the study is important. This is
usually stated in terms of identifying people or
institution that will benefit from it and how they will
benefit.
 This is where you convince scholars that their research

is worth undertaking or studying.

Exercise 5
Who are the stakeholders and
what are associated benefits?

Scope of the study
 Specifies the boundaries of their research.
 Itcovers
◦ Geographical scope which defines the location of
the study;
◦ Theoretical scope by defining issues to be covered;
and
◦ Time scope stating the period coverage of the
research

Exercise 6
Determine the scope of your
study?

Description of the study area
 Brief description of the study area or study
organizations or sampling unit.
 Itprovides information about the characteristics of the

study areas as population, location, climate,
socioeconomic activities etc.
 In case you are studying about institutions,

information concerning target institutions is inevitable.
Such information may include organizational structure,
mandates of respective institutions, establishment laws
etc.
Limitation
 Limitation, by definition, are factors affecting
research findings substantially and lies beyond the
control of the researcher.
 It could be concerned to chosen research method,

research technique, sampling method, sampling size,
etc

GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Engineering
Chapter Three:
Literature review

Session outline
Literature review
Goals of literature review
Types of reviews
Where to find the research literature?
Referencing

2) Reviewing the literature
This involves to review
existing literature and
prepare a summary of
the topic and submit for
approval.
Review the literature :
◦ Review concepts and
theories
◦ Review previous research
finding
Why Literature Review
It provides a theoretical background to your
study.
It helps you establish the links between what
you are proposing to examine and what has
already been studied.
It enables you to show how your findings
have contributed to the existing body of
knowledge in your profession. It helps you to
integrate your research findings into the
existing body of knowledge.
Goals of a literature review
 To
demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge
and establish credibility.
 Toknow the path of prior research and how a current

research project is linked to it.
 To integrate and summarize what is known in an area.
 To learn from others and stimulate new ideas.
 To identify variables.
 To help developing theoretical framework.

Types of Reviews
 There are six types of reviews
◦ Self-study review
◦ Context reviews
◦ Historical review
◦ Theoretical review
◦ Methodological review

Cont'…
 SELF-STUDY  CONTEXT REVIEW
REVIEW  Purpose: To place a specific
 Purpose: To increase project in the big picture
the reader’s and and to create a link to a
reviewers’ confidence. developing body of
knowledge.
 Establish the significance

and relevance of a research
question by review of
 A review that only
existing literature in order to
demonstrates show how a project fits into
familiarity within an the big picture and
area a part of an
◦ its implications for a field
educational program.
of knowledge.
Cont'…
 HISTORICAL  CONTEXT REVIEW
REVIEW  Purpose: To compare how
 Purpose: To trace the different theories address an

development of an issue issue. And then evaluates
over time. how well each accounts for
findings.
 Referring back the
development of an idea  Researchers also use it to
or showing how a
integrate two theories or
particular issue or
extend a theory to new
theory has evolved
issues. It sometimes forms a
over time.
hybrid – historical
 Researchers conduct theoretical review.
historical review only
on the most important Abdifatah Omar
Tuesday, July 14, 2020 77
ideas in a field.
5) Methodological review
 Purpose:
◦ To point out how methodology varies by study.
◦ To evaluates the methodological strength of past

studies.
 Describe conflicting results and showing how

different research designs, samples, measures, and
so on account for different results.

Where to find the research
literature?
1) Articles in scholarly journals
2) Scholarly books (Available in literature)
3) Dissertation
4) Government documents
5) Policy reports and presented papers

3) Referencing
 Referencing, or citing, means acknowledging the
sources of information and ideas you have used in
an assignment, thesis or any other academic paper.
 Sources could include books, journal or newspaper

articles, items from the internet, pictures or
diagrams.

Why reference?
 In academic writings one is required to read widely
so as to identify the current thinking about a
particular topic.
 You can then use the ideas expressed by other

people to reinforce the arguments you present in
your assignment.

Cont'…
 The referencing in your assignment, thesis or
academic paper shows two things:
◦ Range of ideas and approaches to a topic that you

have found and thought about
◦ Your acknowledgement of where these ideas

came from

Cont'…
 By using references appropriately, you will show the
breadth and quality of your research and avoid
plagiarism.
◦ Plagiarism is presenting someone else’s ideas and/or
the way they express their ideas as if they are your
own.
◦ So, when you present a sentence in an assignment,

thesis or academic paper without a reference, or words
without inverted commas (‘……’) it means that you
are, in effect, saying to your reader that those ideas,
information or words are your own original ideas or
words. If they are not, then you may have plagiarized.
Rules of referencing
1. A reference must be included every time you use
someone else’s ideas or information.
2. A reference must be included when you paraphrase,

quota, summarize or copy the work of others.
3. Each reference must appear in two places:

◦ in the text (i.e Body)
◦ in the reference list at the end of the assignment,
academic work or thesis.

Notices the difference
- Paraphrase (express someone else’s idea in your own
words)
- Summarize (express someone else’s idea in a reduced

form in your own words)
- Quote (express someone else’s idea in their exact

words)
- Copy (reproduce a diagram, graph or table from

someone else’s work).
Rules of referencing & citation
(APA/Harvard System)
1.Book(Single Author)
Title: Human Resource Management in Somaliland
Author: Ahmed Hassan
Publisher: National Printing Press
Year: 2011 City: Hargeisa Edition: 3rd
In-text citation Reference list

Beginning of Ahmed Hassan(2011),Human
sentence---Ahmed Resource Management in
(2011). End of sentence Somaliland,3rd ed. National
(Ahmed,2011) Printing Press, Hargeisa
Cont’…
2. Book (Two Authors)
Title: Performance Appraisal
Author: Ahmed Hassan and Yasin Omer

Beginning of sentence--- Ahmed Hassan and Yasin Omer
Ahmed & Yasin (2011). (2011), Performance Appraisal, 3rd
End of sentence (Ahmed ed. National Printing Press, Hargeisa
& Yasin, 2011)

Cont’…
3. Book(Four Authors)
Title: Conflict Analysis and Resolution
Author: Ahmed Hassan , Yasin Omer, Hodan Nour & Asma Hussein

Beginning of Ahmed Hassan, Yasin Omer, Hodan
sentence--- Ahmed et Nour & Asma Hussein (2011), Conflict
al(2011). End of Analysis and Resolution, 3rd ed.
sentence (Ahmed et al National Printing Press, Hargeisa
,2011)
Cont’…
4. Book section(Single Author)
Section/Chapter title: Bargaining
Book title: Industrial Relations
Chapter author: Ahmed Hassan Book author: Saed Farah
Publisher: National Printing Press Year: 2011
City: Hargeisa Edition: 3rd Pages: 250-290

Beginning of Ahmed Hassan (2011), Bargaining, In
sentence---Ahmed Industrial Relations (250-290),3rd ed.
(2011). End of National Printing Press, Hargeisa
sentence
(Ahmed,2011)
Cont’…
5. Journal article(Single Author)
Article title: Factors affecting employees performance of service
organization in Somaliland
Journal Name: Journal of Human Resource Management
Author: Abdirahman Jama Year: 2011 Pages: 5-10
Volume: 4 Issue: 16

Beginning of Abdirahman Jama (2011), Factors
sentence--- affecting employees performance of
Abdirahman (2011). service organizations in Somaliland,
End of sentence Journal of Human Resource
(Abdirahman,2011) Management, 4(16), 5-10
Cont’…
6. Article in periodicals
Article title: Impact of Salary Increment on Employee’s Motivation
in Somaliland.
Periodical name: Quarterly Human Resource Review
Author: Ahmed Hassan Year:2011 Date: January 12
Pages: 15-25

Beginning of Ahmed Hassan (2011,January
sentence---Ahmed 12), Impact of Salary Increment
(2011). End of
sentence
on Employee’s Motivation in
(Ahmed,2011) Somaliland, Quarterly human
resource review, pp15-25.
Cont’…
7. Conference Proceedings
Article title: Causes of employees’ turnover in Private Businesses in
Hargeisa
Conference publication name: Proceedings of the 10th annual
conference on the Small Business Development
Author: Ahmed Hassan Year: 2011 Pages: 42-65
City: Hargeisa Publisher: Chamber of Commerce
Beginning of Ahmed Hassan . (2011). Causes of
sentence--- employees’ turnover in Private
Ahmed(2011). End Businesses in Hargeisa City,
of sentence Proceedings of 10th annual conference
(Ahmed,2011) on Small Business Development (pp.
42-65). Hargeisa, Chamber of
Commerce
Cont’…
8. Report
Title: Status of Public Sector Employees, annual report .
Author: Civil Service Commission Year: 2011
Publisher: Civil Service Commission
City: Hargeisa

Beginning of CSC (2011). Status of Public
sentence---CSC Sector Employees, Annual
(2011). End of report. Hargeisa; CSC
sentence (CSC,2011)

Cont’…
9. Website
Name of webpage: Procurement administration in Somaliland
Name of website: National Tender Board Year: 2011 Month:
January Day: 24
Year Accessed: 2011 Month Accessed: September Day Accessed: 15
URL: http://www.ntb.gov.et

Beginning of Ahmed Hassan (2011, January 24).
sentence--- Procurement administration in Somaliland.
Retrieved September 15, 2011, from
Ahmed(2011). End National Tender Board official website:
of sentence http://www.ntb.gov.et
(Ahmed,2011)
When must we provide citation?
 Quote directly
 Paraphrase
 Summarise
 Useideas, theories, facts, experiments, case

studies, from a source
 Adoptanother person’s research method, survey or
experiment design
 Use statistics, tables, diagrams etc.

Cases where no citation required
 Your own ideas, theories, arguments, conclusions
 Surveys and experiments designed and carried out by you
 Your own research method
 Very basic common knowledge: i.e. Hargeisa is the capital

of Somaliland.
BUT
 Hargeisa is the capital of Somaliland and has a population
of 1,200,000 (cite source!)

APA Style
◦ In the case of one and two authors- Surname of the
author(s) followed by year of publication and page
number if it is direct quote
 Cormack (2014) work supports … view
(paraphrasing)
 Cormack (2014, p.32-33) states that 'when

writing….’ (quote)
 Writing for a professional audience (Cormack and

Jacky, 1994).

Cont'…
◦ In case of three to five authors-Write the surnames
of all of the authors the first time the text is cited, then
after the surname of the first author followed by et al.
meaning and others
 Further research (Green, Harris and Dunne, 2009)

showed that …
 The research (Green, et al., 2009) has also found

that the majority of
 Inthe case of six and more authors- the surname of

the first author followed by
Tuesday, July et al.
14, 2020 every
Abdifatah Omar time the work is98
Cont'…
 Several works by one author in the same year will be
identified by an alphabet
◦ Earlier research by Dunn (2013a) found that…but
later research suggested again by Dunn (2013b) that
….
 When you cite a chapter from an edited book, you cite
the author of the chapter not the editor of the book
 In case you want to cite a work that has no author
◦ Development is defined as (Anon., 2009)

Cont'…
 Incase you want to cite a work that has no date
◦ Earlier research (Smith, n.d.) demonstrated that
…
 Second hand references

◦ Deforestation is described as ….(Brown, 2006
cited in Bassett, 2013, p.142)

Con'…
Citing from Religious Texts (like Bible,
Qu’ran)
◦ Qur'an- (Sura no., Verse no.) e.g. (Sūra 19,
v. 12)
You do not need to include religious text in

reference list

Cont'…
 Citingfrom personal communication
◦ (Surname of the information source, personal
communication, Month day, Year of the interview)
◦ (Ahmed Ali, personal communication, September, 12,

2012)

Cont'…
 Ifthe publication year is not know for sure, you can
use:
◦ 2005? probable year
◦ ca. 2005 approximately 2005
◦ 200- decade certain but not year
◦ 200? probable decade

Cont'…
If certain bibliographic details are missing, use:-
◦ Anon author anonymous or not identifiable
◦ s.l. no place of publication (Latin: sine loco)
◦ s.n. no named publisher (Latin: sine nomine)
◦ n.d. no date

GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Engineering
Chapter Four:
Research Design
Abdifatah Omar
Chapter III: Research Design
 Variable Definition/Operationalization of Variables
 Research Types
 Research Approach
 Sample Design
◦ Population
◦ Sample size
◦ Sampling techniques
 Sources of Data
 Data Collection Instruments
 Data Presentation Tools
 Data Analysis and Interpretation
 Ethical ConsiderationTuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 106
Session outline
 Census and sample survey
 Definition of sample
 Why sample?
 Sampling process

Variable defined
 Variable is a concept that varies.
 Variable is a concept that can take different
quantitative values as a weight, height, income
 That a variable may be situation specific; for

example gender is a variable but if in a particular
situation like a class of Research Methods if there are
only female students, then in this situation gender
will not be considered as a variable.
 Variablescan take quantitatively different values,

namely continuously and discrete.
Cont'…
 Continuous variables – are measurable values
that can have decimal points.
◦ In a concise manner, continuous variable is a
data obtained by measurement, usually stated as
decimal or sometimes whole numbers. For
example, income, height, temperature, age, or a
test score

Cont'…
 Discrete variables - are natural numbers or values
that can be counted.
◦ In a concise manner, discrete data is a data
obtained by counting process, usually stated as
natural numbers.
 In simple terms, any variable that has a limited

number of distinct values and which cannot be
divided into fractions, is a discontinuous variable.
(Discrete, categorical variable or classificatory
variable). For example, number of students in a class.

Dependent and independent variables
 Dependent variable is a variable that depends
upon or is consequences of other variables.
 Independent variable is the antecedents to the

dependent variable
 For example, height depends on age
 Height is dependent variable and age is
independent

Cont'…
 Independent variables –responsible for bringing
about change in a phenomenon, situation
 Dependent variables –effects of a change variable,

the outcome of the changes brought about by changes
in an independent variable

Types of Measurements
(Types of Data)
 Measurement can be qualitative or quantitative.
◦ Qualitative measurement focuses on
interpretation and analysis of paragraphs.
◦ Quantitative measurement is numerical.

Analysing data
( four levels of Data)
 Whilstmeasuring data, measurements can be
nominal, ordinal and interval and ratio levels of
measurement.

A) Nominal scales
 Nominal scales classifies elements into two or more
categories.
 It indicates that the elements are different-not

according to order or magnitude.
 In simple terms, it is a type of data which reflects

classification characteristics, but do not indicate any
mathematical or qualitative differences.
 When the data is nominal, it is meaningless to find

mean, standard deviations, correlation coefficients,
etc. Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 115
Example
 Grouping into categories based upon political party
preference (Kulmiye, Waddani, UCID) or upon sex
(Male or Female) or upon religion (Muslim,
Orthodox, Protestant, Catholic, etc).
 In the political party preference system Kulmiye

might be assigned the number "1", Waddani "2", and
UCID "3", while in the latter females might be
assigned the number "1" and males "2".

Cont'…

b) Ordinal Scales
 Ordinal scale possesses the property of magnitude.
 Itclassifies scores in the algebra of inequalities (a < b

< c) (I.e a is not equal to “b” and b is not equal to
“a” etc)
 Ordering,ranking, or rank ordering is involved.

Examples: the ranking of people for height, weight,
etc.
 Can apply the median, rank order, correlations and

percentile.
Cont'…
 In ordinal scales, the numbers attached to values
might indicate a ranking or ordering of the values.
 Itis a data set that is ordered meaningfully. Ordered

data represents meaning beyond their nature. For
example, Grade A, B, C, D, E reflects beyond
English letter whilst in exam results.

Examples

c) Interval Scales
 Establishesan equal unit in the scale. The difference
between any two scores is equal.
 Suitable to calculate arithmetic mean and standard

deviations.
 The classic example of an interval scale

is Celsius temperature because the difference
between each value is the same. For example, the
difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable
10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70
degrees.

Cont'…
 All qualitative research is nominal.
 All categorical data in which there is no difference in

value among the categories is nominal.
 All categorical data in which there is an implied

ranking (for example, high-medium-low) is ordinal.
 Any question that asks respondents to rank order

responses is also ordinal.
 Any question in which the response is a number or can

be interpreted as a number with equal values among the
data points is ratio. Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 122
Census and sampling survey
A complete enumeration of all items in the
‘population’ is known as a Census.
◦ All items in any field of inquiry is a population or
universe.
 Under census, the assumption is that no element is

left and highest accuracy is obtained.

Section 1 Section 2
Section 3
Section 5
Section 4

Cont'…
 Alternatively,
sample respondents can be selected
from the population.
 The respondents selected should be as

representative of the total population as possible.
 The selected respondents constitute what is

technically called a ‘sample’ and the selection
process is called ‘sampling technique.’ The survey
so conducted is known as ‘sample survey’.

Sample
A sample is a subset, or some part, of a larger
population.
◦ A larger population could be anything out

which sample is taken.
A complete group of entities sharing some

common set of characteristics is population.

Cont'…
 Target population
◦ Target population is the complete group of specific
population elements relevant to the research project.
◦ Target population may also be called survey

population i.e. that aggregation of elements from
which the survey sample is actually selected.
 In the example of ‘University students”, finally one
may decide to study the University students from
government institutions located in Hargeisa, who
are studying Development Management, who are
aged older than 24 years of age.

Why sample?
 Saves Cost, Labor, and Time
 Quality Management/supervision
 Accurate and Reliable Results
 Sampling may be the Only Way

◦ For example, consider the case of electric bulbs. In
testing the life of bulbs, if we were to burn every
bulb produced, there would be none left to sell. This
is destructive sampling.
Cont'…
 Sampling
◦ Sampling is the process of selecting a small

number of items or parts from a larger
population to make conclusions about the
whole population.

Sampling frame
A sampling frame is the list of elements from
which the sample may be drawn. A simple example
could be listing of all University students meeting
the criteria of target population.
A sampling frame is also called the working

population because it provides the list that can be
worked with operationally.
 This is possible only for finite population.

Sampling unit
 Sampling unit is the unit to be studied.
 Sampling unit can be

 Geographical unit as state
 Construction unit as a house, flat etc
 Social unit as family, club, school
 Individual
 The researcher will have to decide one or more of

such units

Sample size
 Sample size is the determination of the number of
elements to be selected from a population to serve as
representatives
 Itcan be done in two ways

◦ Rule of Thumb
◦ Slovane’s Formula

Slovin’s Formula
The
sampling size is generated using the
Slovin’s Formula as follows;

n = sample size
N = Universal population [total population
of the coverage area]
e² = Margin of error [square root of 2]
1 = is given as part of the standard formula

Sampling Techniques
Probability sampling
Non-probability sampling

Sampling Techniques
Probability Non-probability
Sampling Sampling
Simple Systematic Stratified

Cluster
Random Random Random
Sampling
Sampling Sampling Sampling
Convenience Snowball Quota

sampling sampling sampling

1) Probability Sampling
 Probability (Random) sampling is sampling
method whereby all items (i.e., each element) in the
population have a chance of being chosen in the
sample and the probability of each element of the
population included in the sample is known.
 When to use?
◦ Probability sampling designs are used when the
representativeness of the sample is of importance
in the interest of wider generalizability.

2) Non-probability sampling
 Non-probability (Non-random/Judgment)
sampling is a sampling method where personal
knowledge and opinion play major role in
identifying which elements of the population are to
be included in the sample, and the probability of an
element from the population to be included in the
sample is not known.
 When to use?
 When time or other factors, RATHER THAN

generalisability become critical, non-probability
sampling is generally used.
1.1) Simple Random Sample
 This method is also known as chance sampling
or probability sampling
 In this method, each and every item in the

population has an equal chance of inclusion in
the sample.
 This is performed through lottery.

1.2) Systematic sampling
 Systematic sampling is method of selecting sample
in which an element in the sample is obtained by
taking every Kth element on a list of all elements
in the population.
 To determine which of the first K elements is

chosen, a number from 1 to K is chosen at
random.
 For example, if we want to take 100 samples from a
population of 2000 members, the interval is 20 (i.e
2000/100).

Example
 Suppose that there are 1000 resident or households
in one village with different income levels. If the
statician /researcher has the list of all households
randomly listed and wants to study the income
disparity in that village by taking 50 samples?

1.3) Stratified sampling
 If the population from which a sample is to be
drawn does not constitute homogenous group,
then stratified sampling technique is applied so as
to obtain a representative sample
 Stratified
sampling: If a population from which a
sample is to be drawn does not constitute a
homogeneous group.
 Under stratified sampling the population is divided

into several sub-populations ( Strata)

How do we draw a stratified
sample?
 we can draw a stratified random sample by
separating the population elements into non-
overlapping groups, called strata/
 Then selecting subjects or elements from each

stratum by using:
◦ a simple random method or
◦ systematic sampling method.

Cont…

Example
 A sample of 100 students has to be selected out of
1000 students of a University. Of these students,
600 are boys and the rest are girls whereby the
college requires 60 from the boys and 40 from the
girls?

1.4) Cluster sampling
 Cluster sampling involves grouping the population
into units or cluster of elements, which are close
together.
 For example, it may be a collection or groups of
households that are geographically close together.
 In cluster sampling, the total population is divided into a
number of relatively small subdivisions.

Example
 Still taking the study of the income condition in
Hargeisa, the city will be classified by districts
(i.e., Ahmed dhagax, 26th June… etc). Once the
city is classified into various clusters (i.e
Districts), randomly, some of the clusters (i.e.,
districts in our case) will be chosen and the
researcher randomly select elements from the
chosen cluster.

2.1) Quota sampling
 Quota sampling is a sampling procedure which
ensures that certain characteristics of a population
sample will be represented to the exact extent that
the researcher desires.
 Given characteristics may be male and female,

under age 30, ages 30 to 60, over 60 etc then
decides how many to get in each category.
 Thus,
the number of people in various categories of
sample is fixed.
For example,
 The researcher decides to select 5 males and 5
females under age 30, 10 males and 10 females
aged 30 to 60, and 5 males and 5 females over
age 60 for a 40 person sample.
 This is quota sampling

2.2) Convenience/ Accidental Sampling
 Convenience/Accidental sampling involves
choosing the nearest and most convenient
persons for the researcher
 The main consideration is ease of access to

population and not selection of respondents.
Selection continues until required number of
respondents is contacted.

2.3) Purposive sampling
 In this sampling technique, a researcher
purposively selects people who she/he believes
have the required characteristics needed for the
study.
◦ For example, a researcher is conducting a study

on factors contributing to poor performance in
Mathematics might lead him to select teachers
who teach Mathematics.

2.4) Snowball sampling
 Snowball sampling (network, chain referral, or
reputational sampling) is a method for identifying
and sampling (or selecting) cases in the network.
 Itis based on an analogy to a snowball.

◦ It begins with one or a few people or cases and
spreads out on the basis of links to the initial
cases.

Cont'…
 This group is then used to locate others who
possess similar characteristics and who, in turn,
identify others.
◦ For example, if a researcher wants to get

information about people who are HIV positive
then the researcher can use this kind of
sampling.

Data sources
 Thereare two data sources viz primary data and
secondary data.
◦ Primary data are those which are collected afresh

and for the first time.
◦ Secondary data, on the other hand, are those

which have already been collected by someone
else and which have already been passed through
the statistical process.

Data Sources
Primary Data Secondary Data
Observation Interviewing Questionnaire Documents

Data Collection Instruments
Govt.
Non-Participant
Semi-Structured
publications
Un-structured
Participant
Structured
Collective
Earlier
Mailed
Direct
or
Researches
Census
Personal Records
1) Observation
 Observation involves the collection of information by a way of
investigators’ own observation, without interviewing the
respondents.
 Sometimes, observation is divided into two types

◦ Participant observation and
◦ Non-participant observation
 Observation also can be of two types

◦ Structured observation (decided in advance issues pertaining to
◦ Unstructured observation (when the abovementioned issues are
not thought in advance)

Cont'…
 Advantages of observation
◦ Overcomes language barrier.
◦ Can be carried out any time.
◦ Helps researcher to get in touch with the

information directly.
◦ More reliable technique.

Cont'…
 Disadvantages of Observation
◦ Misinterpretation of what is observed.
◦ More expensive way of collecting information than

the questionnaires.
◦ Time consuming.
◦ Cannot be applied to many aspects of social life.

For instance, one cannot observe attitude and
beliefs.

2) Interview Method
 Interview involves presentation of oral-verbal
stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses.
 An interview is a conversation between two people

(the interviewer and the interviewee) where questions
are asked by the interviewer to obtain information
from the interviewee.
 Thismethod can be used through personal interviews

and, if possible, through telephone interviews.

2.1. Personal interview
 Personal interview method is a type of interview
which requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in a face-to-face contact
to the other person or persons.
 This sort of interview may be in the form of direct

personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation.
 In the case of direct personal investigation, the

interviewer has to collect the information
personally from the sources concerned.
3) Telephone interview
 Telephone interview involves contacting the
respondents on telephone.
 Itplays an important role when the survey has to be

accomplished in a very limited time.

Cont'…
 Advantages of Interview
◦ Interview is quite flexible.
◦ Adaptable and can be used in many people.
◦ Information can be obtained in a detail and well-

explained.

Cont'…
 Disadvantages of Interview
◦ Interviewees may feel shy or become discomfort
about the question.
◦ Sometimes questions may be wrong and may

take a lot of time from the respondent to give
respond.
◦ Untrained interviewers may be one of the major

weaknesses or demerits of the interview.

4) Mailing questionnaire
 The researcher and the respondents do come in
contact with each other.
 Questionnaires are mailed to the respondents with a

request to return after completing the same

Designing Data Collection Instruments
 There are various data collection instruments.
 Questionnaires, Interviews, Focus Group Discussions

etc
 Questionnaires are widely used

Questionnaire
Design

What is a
Questionnaire?
A set of questions designed to
generate the statistical
information from a specific
demographic needed to
accomplish the research
objectives
Improper design can lead to?
Incomplete information
Inaccurate data
Higher costs

Purposes of the Questionnaire
 Ensures standardization and comparability of the
data across interviews – everyone is asked the same
questions
 Increases speed and accuracy of recording
 Facilitates data processing
 Allows the researcher to collect the relevant
information necessary to address the management
decision problem

Designing the Questionnaire
 Determine survey objectives: Plan what to measure.
 Decide on format. E.g. Telephone, self or face-to-face
 Formulate questions to obtain the needed information
 Decide on the wording of questions
 Decide on the question sequence and layout of the

questionnaire
 Using a sample, test the questionnaire for omissions and

ambiguity
 Correct the problems Tuesday,

(pretest again, if necessary)
The Major Decisions in Questionnaire
Design
1. Content - What should be asked?
2. Wording - How should each question be

phrased?
3. Sequence - In what order should the questions be

presented?
4. Layout - What layout will best serve the research

objectives?
The most difficult step is specifying exactly what

information is to beTuesday,
collected from each respondent
Content: Questions must meet
5 requirements
1. Are the questions relevant. Do they pertain to the
research objectives?
2. Are the questions accurate. Do they accurately depict

the attitudes, behaviors, etc. intended to investigate?
3. Do respondents have the necessary information?

• Qualify respondents
4. Do respondents understand and interpret the question

correctly?
5. Will respondents give the information?

How should the questions be asked?
Format: How much freedom do we give respondents in

answering questions
Open-ended questions
– What do you look for most in a job?
– Is there anything else you would like to add about

the product?
Open Ended Questions: Key
advantages
• Wide range of responses and information can be
obtained
• Answers based on respondent’s not researcher’s
frame of reference
• Lack of influence. Don't channel respondents
thinking
• Can help interpret closed-ended questions – why?
• Particularly useful as introduction to survey or
topic
• When too many possible responses to be listed or
unknown

Open-ended questions:
Key disadvantages
Ability and/or willingness of respondent to answer
 Interviewer’s ability to record answers quickly or
summarize accurately & probe effectively
 Interviewer’s attitude influences response
 Time consuming (Tabulation, classification, assignment,
validation)
 Difficulty in coding
 Require respondents to be articulate
 Respondents may miss important points
 Non-response
Closed-ended questions
(Fixed-alternative responses)
What do you look for most in a job?
A. Work that pays well
B. Work that gives a sense of accomplishment
C. Work where you make most decisions by yourself
D. Work that is steady with little chance of being laid off.
Advantages
 Ease of understanding
 Requires less effort on part of respondent
 Ease of tabulation & analysis
 Less error prone
 Less respondent bias
Less time consuming
 Answers directly comparable
Tuesday, July 14, from respondent
2020 Abdifatah Omar to respondent
175
Closed-ended questions
(Fixed-alternative questions)
Disadvantages
 Middle/Neutral categories often selected
inappropriately (ignorance, safety)
 Less opportunity for self-expression or subtle
qualifications
 Less involving for respondents
 Order of response categories can have major impact on
results
Key tradeoff
While using forced response, give respondent
opportunity to honestly opt out of question (i.e., Don’t
Know, No Answer, Neither Agree nor Disagree, if other
please specify) so as not to dilute data collected
Dichotomous Questions
Hargeisa Municipality must collect garbage from the
primary sources instead of private service providers?
1. Agree
2. Disagree
Advantages
 Easy to administer and tabulate
Disadvantages
 Prone to large amounts of error
 Fail to communicate any intensity of feeling

Multiple Choice Questions
Are all possible alternatives included?
Too many alternatives
Position Bias
Scaled Response Questions

 Closed ended questions where the response choices are
designed to capture an intensity of feeling (Likert, Staple,
Semantic differential)
Easy to code and more powerful statistical tools

Main problem: Respondent misunderstanding
Question Wording
Can have major impact on how respondent interprets

question
All respondents should interpret in the same way

Things to avoid
 Complexity: use simple, direct, conversational language
 Leading questions -- that suggest or imply certain
answers.
 For example, what year of 2010 is the last Presidential election held?
 Loaded questions -- suggest social desirability, or are

emotionally charged.
 Have you purchased a high quality Sony TV this year
 Ambiguity and vagueness: Words such as “often”,

“frequently”, “many”, should be used with caution. If
these words have to be used, their meaning should be
explained properly.
 Which province is bigger Togdheer or Awdal? – would your answer be
based on population or area?

More things to avoid
 Long-worded questions
 Double-barreled questions. Questions that refer to two
or more issues within the same question.
 For example, do you think Nike offers better pricing
and variety than other brands

OPENING
 Provide first name (at least)
 Provide details of your institutions – University and
Department is enough
 Provide reason for survey and topic
 State that no selling will be involved and no personal
data other than for statistical purposes
 Tell respondent approximate time to complete
 Reinforce that respondent’s time is appreciated
 Invite to participate
CLOSING
Thank for time

Ask if they had a positive experience and remind
them that their opinions
Tuesday, Julycount
14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 182
GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Engineering
Data Analysis
Chapter Five: and
Interpretation – Theoretical and
Practical perspectives
Abdifatah Omar
Data Analysis and Interpretation
SPSS
Excel

Statistical packages
SPSS
Excel
Data entry
Data presentation
Analysis

Data Presentation Tools
 In order to present a given finding, you have several
ways to do so. These include
◦ Tables
◦ Pie Charts
◦ Bar Charts etc
Note:
◦ Fore more details, refer to the SPSS lecture

Results Section
 The Results section should set out your key results.
 Including any Statistical Analysis and whether or
not the results of these are significant.
 You should cover any literature supporting your
interpretation of significance.
 It does not have to include everything you did,
particularly for a doctorate dissertation.

Cont….
You should write your results section in
the past tense:
You are describing what you have done
in the past.

Discussion Section
 This section has four purposes, it should:
 Interpret and explain your results

 Answer your research question
 Justify your approach
 Critically evaluate your study

Cont…
The discussion section therefore needs to review
your findings in the context of the literature
and the existing knowledge about the subject.
◦ You also need to demonstrate that you understand the
limitations of your research.
◦ The implications of your findings for policy and
practice.
This section should be written in the present
tense.

Cont..
 The Discussion section needs to follow from your
results and relate back to your literature review.
 Make sure that everything you discuss is covered in the

results section.

GOLLIS UNIVERSITY
Engineering
Data Analysis
Chapter six: and
Conclusion and Recommendation
Abdifatah Omar
Conclusion and Recommendation
Introduction - a brief on the chapter
Conclusions - a summary drive from the

research findings
Recommendation - should be derived from

the conclusions

Conclusion
 Conclusion is not a summary
 Does not require you to repeat figures obtained from

the field and presented in the research
 Conclusion is objective-specific. In other words, the

researcher need to draw conclusion from each specific
objective
 Conclusion is very short and often written paragraph

form
Recommendation
 Recommendations are your policy and system
approaches to resolve gaps observed in your
research findings
 Recommendations must be contextual and

realistic.
 In your recommendations, you must state who

should be done, how should be done and what
should be done.

Course design
Resear
Resear
ch
ch
Advanc
Practical
Practical
writings
writings
ed
researc
h
Statistical
Statistical
packages
packages

Varia Data
bles analysis
Data
Research
Introd
collectio
n uction
Advanced
Sampl Research
Methodolog
ing y
Literatu
re
review
Problem Methods vs.
vs. Methodolog
hypothesis y

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‫بسم الله الرحمن‬

Eng.Abdifatah Omar Abdillahi

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 4

• Title Identification and

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 7

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 Class works 10%

 Research proposal 24%

 Final exam 60%

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Chapter Two: Literature Review

Chapter Three: Research Design

Chapter Four: Data presentation and analysis

Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendations

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 14

It is about to copy and paste, but the

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 16

Proper Labels and Captions

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 18

 Introduction - a brief on the chapter

 Conclusions - a summary drive from the research

 Recommendations - should be derived from the

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 19

Eng.Abdifatah Omar Abdillahi

 Why conduct research?

 Research Methodology Vs. Research Methods

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 21

◦ A systematized effort to gain new knowledge

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 22

◦ To find out the truth which is hidden and

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 23

 to discover new facts

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 24

to develop new scientific tools, concepts and

to overcome or solve the problems occurring

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 25

◦ Applied research and fundamental research

◦ Quantitative research and qualitative research

◦ Other types of research

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 26

 It involves an attempt to identify, determine or

 It includes surveys and fact finding enquiries of

 As its main characteristics, descriptive researches

 Analytical refers to establishing why something

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 28

 It directs towards finding information that has a

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 30

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 Qualitative approach is concerned with subjective

 Both methods use observations as their tools.

 Both use sampling procedures.

 Both use interview guide in their research

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 33

 Methods of analysis - qualitative researches use

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 34

◦ Put differently, research method is all about design of

 Methods refers to the techniques researcher use to

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 35

Tuesday, July 14, 2020 Abdifatah Omar 36

◦ Therefore, Research methodology is a way to