MODULE 3:

REPRODUCTIVE
BIOLOGY
Reproduction in Plants
STRUCTURE OF THE ANTHER
 The anther is a part of the stamen of the flower
and it has a doorknob-like structure
 Vascular bundle - transport water and nutrients
to anther
 Stomium - where anther split to release mature
pollen 
 Fibrous layer - layer of thickened cells which
thicken when anther matures
 Tapetum - provide nutrients of developing pollen
 Pollen sac - contain pollen mother cells which
divide by meiosis producing haploid cells that
mature into pollen
ANNOTATIONS OF ANTHERS
AND EMBRYO SAC
FORMATION OF POLLEN GRAINS
 In center of each pollen sac, diploid pollen
mother cells divide by meiosis each, to
produce four haploid cells which forms a
tetrad
 Each haploid cells develop a tough,
protective  wall around itself becoming a
pollen grain
STRUCTURE OF THE OVULE
 This is a miniature structure in seed plant
and it forms the seed of a fruit after
fertilization
 It consist of 3 parts namely: the integument-
a tough outer protective layer, especially
that of an animal or plant.
 Nucellus- the central and chief part of a
plant ovule that encloses the female
gametophyte.
 The megagametophyte produces egg cells
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
SAC
 In the center of each ovule the embryo sac
mother cells divide by mitosis to form 4
haploid cells
 3 degenerate and 1 haploid cell grows to
form the embryo sac
 the haploid cell divides by mitosis to form
eight haploid nuclei
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
SAC
POLLINATION
What is Pollination?
 This refers to the transport of pollen
grains from the anthers of a flower
to the stigma
FORMS OF POLLINATION
The two main types of Pollination are:
Cross Pollination and Self-Pollination
 Cross Pollination is refers to the
transfer of pollen grains from the
anthers of one flower to another
FORMS OF POLLINATION
 Self-Pollination this is whereby the
pollen travels from the anther and
lands on the stigma of the same
flower.
ILLUSTRATION OF CROSS
POLLINATION
ILLUSTRATION OF SELF-
POLLINATION
THE TRANSITION
After Pollination has occur, the pollen
grains absorb water and nutrients
which in turn causes them to
germinate.
Pollen tubes begin to form through
one of the pores in the exine (outer
layer of pollen grains), on the stigma
and travels along the style towards
the ovule
THE TRANSITION
 Genes from within the nucleus of
the tube are transcribed and
translated to form necessary protein
required to carry out growth in the
pollen tube
CONTINUATION OF TRANSITION
Enzymes begin to secrete from the tube which
burrows a pathway in the style towards the
ovule
During growth, the generative tube nucleus
undergo division by mitosis and results in 2
haploid male gamete nuclei.
The tube inserts itself into the micropyle and
the tip of the tube breaks down thus allowing
the male gamete nuclei access to the embryo
sac
CONTINUATION OF TRANSITION
 One of the nucleus undergoes fusion
with a ovum nucleus which then
produces the diploid zygote nucleus
while the other nucleus combines
with diploid nucleus that is situated
in the center of the embryo sac to
form a triploid endosperm. (This is
referred to as double fertilization)
MICROSCOPIC VIEW OF POLLEN
GRAINS DEVELOPING POLLEN TUBES
ANNOTATION OF THE
DEVELOPMENT OF POLLEN TUBES
ILLUSTRATION OF
FERTILIZATION
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE
CROSS POLLINATION
 Protogyny - when stigma matures
and is ready to accept pollen but
anther is not mature yet to release
pollen

 Protoandry - when anther is mature

and release pollen grains but stigma
is not mature yet to accept pollen
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE
CROSS POLLINATION
 Dioecy - plant has separate sexes
where trees produce either male of
female flowers. NB male trees are
nearby for the female trees to
produce fruits so self pollination if
impossible
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE
CROSS POLLINATION
 Self incompatibility - if a pollen grain has
an allele that is the same as one on a
stigma it will not germinate. so gene
determines whether pollen grains
germinate and grow on stigmatic surfaces
 Male sterility - some mutations result in
failure to produce pollen or if the pollens
are present, they are non-functional
FACTORS THAT ENCOURAGE
CROSS POLLINATION
 Heterostyly – this refers to a
situations whereby the length of
styles of different plants’ flowers
are relative to the length of that of
the anthers (to prevent self
pollination)
CONSEQUENCE OF SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
 If implementing cross pollination:
 Pollination may fail due to distance barrier.
 Flowers have to totally depend on the
external agencies for pollination.
 More wastage of pollen.
 It may introduce some undesirable
characters.
GENETIC CONSEQUENCES OF
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

 Disadvantages of self pollination: Progeny

shows less vigor due to continued self
pollination. No possibility of introduction of
new desirable characters. Undesirable
characters cannot be eliminated. It does not
help in evolution.
 It gives stimulus to the plant due to which ovary
develops into fruit and ovules develop into seeds.
 It restores the diploid condition by fusion of haploid
male and female gametes.
 It results in the formation of diploid zygote, which
develops into an embryo and gives rise to a new
plant.
 It results in the formation of triploid primary
endosperm nucleus (PEN) which develops into
endosperm in the seed. It provides nourishment to
the developing embryo.
 It brings about recombination of characters
resulting in variation among the offspings.
 Once fertilization occurs zygote divides by mitosis to
form an embryo. The embryo obtains water, sucrose and
ions from xylem and phloem through the endosperm
 embryo continues to divide to form a plumule
(embryonic shoot) and radicle (embryonic root)  and one
or two cotyledons
 as embryo gets larger nucellus gets squashed and
disintegrates as seed develops supplying nutreints for
growth of embryo
 the intreguments form the seed coat or testa which
protects seed from mechanical damage
 after fertilizzation the ovule becomes a seed and the
ovary a fruit
 the fruit wall (pericarp) enlarges
to accommodate the growing seeds
 the attachment to the ovule now reabsorbs
water so that the seed dries out
 pericarp may retain water and become fleshy
or it may also dry out
FUNCTIONS OF AMNION
 Amniotic fluid is a pale yellow fluid that serves
to cushion the unborn baby from jolts and
bumps. It provides a stable temperature and
assists in maintaining a consistent body
temperature for the unborn child. The fluid
allows the baby to move freely and exercise
growing muscles to develop a symmetrical
musculoskeletal system. It allows for lung
development as the baby begins to breathe
amniotic fluid to strengthen his lungs and
swallow fluid to develop the gastrointestinal
tract. The kidneys develop as the baby urinates
in the fluid.
EFFECTS OF MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR
ON FEOTAL DEVELOPMENT
Nutrient

 energy - growth and metabolism of uterus,

placenta, foetus and breasts
 protein - growth of tissues, muscles
in uterus and foetus
 calcium - growth of bones of foetus
 iron - haemoglobin in both mother and foetus
EFFECTS OF MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR
ON FEOTAL DEVELOPMENT
Alcohol 
- risk of premature delivery          - mental
retardation                                                  
         - abnormal limb development              
                               - heart defects              
                                                     - poor
muscle tone
EFFECTS OF MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR
ON FEOTAL DEVELOPMENT
 Drugs
 nicotine -  increase blood pressure,
restricts blood flow to
the extremities, increase heart rate  
Heroine baby shows withdrawal symptoms like
severe shaking
EFFECTS OF MATERNAL BEHAVIOUR
ON FEOTAL DEVELOPMENT
 cigarette smoking - umbiblical blood vessels
are narrower , placenta smaller than normal,
increased risks of miscarriage and premature
birth decreased mass at birth  increased risk
of death of foetus or infant before or after
birth