MTS-231

Actuating Systems
Kanwal Naveed
General Course Description

• Subject name : Actuating Systems

• Subject Code: MTS-231

• Credit Hours : 3-1

• Pre-Requisite:Electric Circuit Analysis

Course Objectives
• To apply concepts of electronics, magnetism and induction
• To be able to compute salient parameters electro-magnetic circuits
• To be able to calculate parameters related to DC machines
• To analyze DC machines and propose suitable machine components (windings, brushes, commutator
segments, and poles)

• To be able to calculate parameters related to AC synchronous machines

• To be able to calculate parameters related to AC induction machines

• To be able to calculate parameters related to Basic Pneumatic Circuits, Pneumatic Actuators, Electro-
Pneumatics and Hydraulic Systems.
Course Targets
S.No Outcomes Level of PLO
Learning
1. To apply concepts of electronics, magnetism and induction C3 -
 

2. To be able to compute salient parameters of electro-magnetic circuits C3 -

 

3. To be able to calculate parameters related to DC machines C3 1

4. To analyze DC machines and propose suitable machine C5 2
components(windings, brushes, commutator segments, and poles)
5. To be able to calculate parameters related to AC synchronous C3 1
machines
Course Targets
S.No Outcomes Level of PLO
Learning
6. To be able to calculate parameters related to AC induction machines C3 1
     
7. To be able to demonstrate ability to build dc/ac machine as per the P3 4
requirements by integrating pre-built and custom built components
     
 
8. To be able to calculate parameters related to Basic Pneumatic Circuits, C3 1
Pneumatic Actuators, Electro-Pneumatics and Hydraulic Systems.
9. Communicates and presents effectively in course presentations/vivas A2 10
and has effective written skills for assignment/project report writeups.
 
 Course Literature
• Text Book
–Electric Machinery Fundamentals by Stephen J Chapman, Latest Edition.
• Reference Books

 Pneumatics and Hydraulic Systems by W. Bolton, Butterworth

Heinemann Ltd., Latest Edition
• Mode of Teaching

–Lectures
–Practical (Labs)
–Projects
Marks Distribution

Final=40%

Sessionalx2=35%

Quizes=15%

Assignments=10%

Total Marks=100
Theory=75%
Lab Works=25%
What is an Actuating System??
Actuation systems are the elements of control systems which are responsible for
transforming the output of a microprocessor or control system into a controlling
action on a machine or device.

 Pneumatic --- Vacuum Generators

 Electrical --- DC Motors
 Hydraulic --- Fluid based Motors
 Mechanical -- Gears
What is an Actuating System??
• Electric machines interconvert electric and mechanical energy.

 Generator converts mechanical energy (e.g. from an engine) to electric energy.

 Motor converts electric energy to mechanical energy.

• Transformer converts ac electric energy at one voltage level to another

voltage level.

• All three depend on the action of a magnetic field.

Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship

Almost all electric machines rotate about an axis, called the shaft of the
machines. It is important to have a basic understanding of rotational motion.

• Angular position,  - is the angle at which it is oriented, measured from some

arbitrary reference point. Its measurement units are in radians (rad) or in degrees. It is
similar to the linear concept of distance along a line.

• Conventional notation:
• +ve value for anticlockwise rotation,
• -ve value for clockwise rotation
10
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship
• Linear Velocity, v – One-dimensional linear velocity:
dr
where: v
r – distance traverse by the body dt
t – time taken to travel the distance r
• Angular Velocity,  For a rotating body, angular velocity is formulated as:

d
where:  rad/s
 – Angular position/ angular distance dt
t – Time taken
11
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship
 
𝑑𝑣
• Linear acceleration, a 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
• Angular acceleration,  - is defined as the rate of change in angular velocity with respect to
time.

d
• Angular acceleration is assumed +ve  2
(rad / s )
• If angular velocity is increasing in an algebraic sense dt

12
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship

Torque, 
• In linear motion, a force applied to an object causes its velocity to change.
The greater the force applied to the object, the more rapidly its velocity
changes.  𝑭=𝒎𝒂

• Similarly in the concept of rotation, when an object is rotating, its angular

velocity is constant unless a torque is present on it. Greater the torque,
more rapid the angular velocity changes.
• Torque is known as a rotational force applied to a rotating body giving
angular acceleration, a.k.a. ‘twisting force’.

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Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship
Torque: (Units: Nm)
‘Product of force applied to the object and the smallest distance between the line of
action of the force and the object’s axis of rotation’

  Force  perpendicular distance

 F  r sin 
r is a vector pointing from the axis of rotation
to the point of application of force.
F is the applied force.
θ is the angle between vector r and the vector F 14
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship
• Newton’s Law of Rotation Newton’s law for objects moving in a straight line describes
the relationship between the force applied to the object and the acceleration,
𝑭=𝒎𝒂
 

where: F – Force applied

m – mass of object
a – resultant acceleration of object

• Applying these concepts for rotating bodies,

  J
where:  - Torque, (N-m)
J – moment of inertia (angular mass)
 - angular acceleration
15
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship
• For Linear motion; Work, W – is defined as the application of Force through a distance.
Therefore, work may be defined as:
W   Fdr
Assuming that the direction of F is collinear (in the same direction) with the direction of
motion and constant in magnitude, hence,
W  Fr
• For rotataing bodies: Work is application of a torque through an angle,

• Assuming that  is constant, W    d

W   (Joules)
16
Rotational Motion, Newton’s Law & Power Relationship
• Power, P – is defined as rate of doing work. Hence,
dW
P (watts) Watts = joules/second
dt
Applying this for rotating bodies, [assuming constant torque]
d
P    
dt
d

dt
 
• This equation can describe the mechanical power on the shaft of a motor or generator.

17
 Magnetic Fields in Electrical Machines?

Magnetic fields are the fundamental mechanism by which energy is

converted from one form to another in motors, generators and
transformers.

A current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field in the area around it.

A current-carrying wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a force induced on it
(motor action).
A moving wire in the presence of a magnetic field has a voltage induced in it
(generator action).
A time-changing magnetic field induces a voltage in coil of wire through which it
passes (transformer action).
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Production of a Magnetic Field
Consider a current carrying conductor wrapped around a
ferromagnetic core (e.g. iron).
 Area = A
i
v N 
 Mean path
length lc
Ampere’s law: The total amount of magnetic
field induced will be proportional to the
amount of current flowing through the
 H.dl  I net

conductor wounded with N turns Where H is the

Magnetic field
intensity 19
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Area = A
 H.dl  I net
i
Mean path
v N 
length lc


• Let the mean path length of the core, is lc.

• Total current passing (Inet) is then Ni
• Hence Ampere’s Law becomes,

Hlc  Ni Here H is the magnitude of the

magnetic field intensity vector H.
Ni
H 
lc 20
Production of a Magnetic Field
 Magnetic field intensity (H) is in a sense a measure of “effort” that a current is putting in
establishment of magnetic field.
 While magnetic flux density (B) is the strength of magnetic field produced by H. 
 The strength of the magnetic field flux produced in the core also depends on the material
of the core. Thus,
B  H
B = resulting magnetic flux density produced (webers/meter2, Tesla (T))
µ = magnetic permeability of material (Henrys per meter)
H = magnetic field intensity (ampere-turns per meter) 

or
 Ni
B
lc 21
Production of a Magnetic Field
• The constant  may be further expanded to include relative permeability which can be
defined as below:

r   𝜇0 =4 𝜋 × 10
−7
𝐻 /𝑚
o
where: o – permeability of free space (vacuum, air)
• The value of relative permeability is dependent upon the type of material used. The higher
the relative permeability, the higher the amount of flux induced in the core.
• Relative permeability is a convenient way to compare the magnetizability of materials.
• µ represent the relative case of establishing a magnetic field in a given material

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Production of a Magnetic Field
• Also, because the permeability of iron is so much higher than that of air, the
majority of the flux in an iron core remains inside the core instead of travelling
through the surrounding air, which has lower permeability.
• Now, to measure the total flux (φ) flowing in the ferromagnetic core,
consideration has to be made in terms of its cross sectional area (CSA).
Therefore,

  ❑
∅ =∫ 𝐵 ∙ 𝑑𝐴
𝐴
dA = differential unit of area
23
Production of a Magnetic Field
We have assumed that the flux density in the ferromagnetic core is constant throughout,
the equation simplifies to be:

  BA
Taking into account past derivation of B,
The total flux in the core due to current i in the winding is

 NiA

lc
24
Magnetic Circuits

The flow of magnetic flux induced in the
i
ferromagnetic core can be made
analogous to an electrical circuit hence v N 
the name magnetic circuit. 

V = IR

Voltage
source Flux exit

Magneto- Flux
motive force reenters
in At
Electric Circuit Analogy Magnetic Circuit Analogy 25
Magnetic Circuits
Referring to the magnetic circuit analogy, F is denoted as magnetomotive
force (mmf) which is similar to Electromotive force in an electrical circuit
(emf).
Therefore, we can safely say that F is the prime mover or force which
pushes magnetic flux around a ferromagnetic core at a value of Ni (refer to
ampere’s law). Hence F is measured in ampere turns.
The magnetic circuit equivalent equation is as shown:
(similar to V = IR)
F  R
ɸ is flux of circuit, R is reluctance of circuit 26
Right Hand Rule
Modified R.H. Rule

Right Hand rule

The direction of the curled fingers determines the current flow.

The resulting thumb direction will show the magnetic flux flow.

28
Right Hand Rule
Modified R.H. Rule

The direction of the curled fingers determines the current flow.

The resulting thumb direction will show the magnetic flux flow.

29
Reluctance
• The element of R in the magnetic circuit analogy is similar in concept to
the electrical resistance. It is basically the measure of material resistance
to the flow of magnetic flux.
• Reluctance in this analogy obeys the rule of electrical resistance (Series
and Parallel Rules). Reluctance is measured in Ampere-turns per weber.
• Series Reluctance, Req = R1 + R2 + R3 + ….
• Parallel Reluctance,

1 1 1 1
    ...
Req R1 R2 R3
30
Permeance
The inverse of electrical resistance is conductance which is a measure of
conductivity of a material. Hence the inverse of reluctance is known as
permeance, P where it represents the degree at which the material permits
the flow of magnetic flux.

1
P
R
F

R  F  R
  FP
31
Reluctance and Permeance
 NiA
Also, 
lc
A
 Ni
lc
A
F
lc
F

R
A lc
P  ,R
lc A 32
Magnetic Flux
• H - Magnetic field intensity (or strength) is amount of magnetizing
force
• B – Magnetic flux density, is the amount of magnetism induced in
a body, is a function of the magnetizing force (H).
• - The entire group of magnetic lines of force (or field lines) is
called magnetic
 flux. Its symbol is the Greek letter phi () and unit
is maxwell.
(1 weber = 108 maxwell)

33
 Sources of Inaccuracy
By using the magnetic circuit approach, it simplifies calculations related to the magnetic
field in a ferromagnetic material, however, this approach has inaccuracy embedded into it
due to assumptions made in creating this approach (within 5% of the real answer). Possible
reason of inaccuracy is due to:

• The magnetic circuit assumes that all flux are confined within the core, but in reality a
small fraction of the flux escapes from the core into the surrounding low-permeability air,
and this flux is called leakage flux.

• The reluctance calculation assumes a certain mean path length and cross sectional area
(csa) of the core. This is alright if the core is just one block of ferromagnetic material with
no corners, for practical ferromagnetic cores which have corners due to its design, this
assumption is not accurate.
34
Sources of Inaccuracy
• In ferromagnetic materials, the permeability varies with the amount of flux already in
the material. The material permeability is not constant hence there is an existence of
non-linearity of permeability.
• For ferromagnetic core which has air gaps, there are fringing effects that should be
taken into account as shown:

S
35