Chapter 2

What Are Some Methods of

Philosophizing?

Presented by: Kristine Mendoza

Nolan Jay Guilledo
James Carl Angcao
Philosophical Methods
The contrast in the methodology between
the natural sciences and human sciences is
interesting begin this chapter. The modern
natural science observe and explain natural
phenomena in a calculative and an
experimental way. The human sciences, while
utilizing some methods of the natural
sciences, put value on the human person not
primarily as a natural organism but more
often than not as a socio-cultural entity.
 The task oh philosophy is neither to
complete against nor complete the natural
and human sciences, but to discuss,
problematize, and question the foundations,
assumptions, methods and limitations within
the natural and human sciences.
Traditional Branches of Philosophy

Branch of Concern Question

Philosophy
Ethics Study of action What ought I do?

Metaphysics Study of existence What is being?

Epistemology Study of knowledge What can I know?

Aesthetics Study of art What is beautiful?

Logic Study of reasoning What is correct

inference?
Politics Study of power What makes a just
society?
 Ancient and Medieval Philosophy in the West
THE IONIANS The Beginning of Western
650 Thales (623-546) Philosophy in Ancient Greece occurs
B.C.E. Anaximander (614-547) mostly in Greek colonies of anatolia
Anaximenes (599-524) and sieily.
600 Heraelitus of Ephesus (540-460)
B.C.E. Phythagoras (570-495) The Golden Age of Greece (480-
THE ELEATIC SCHOOL 399)
The Period of
550 Xenophanes of colophon (560-478) Naturalism
B.C.E. Parmenides of Elea (540-?) The Persian Wars
Zeno of Elea The Peloponnesian War
Crisis over Oligarchy versus
500 THE PLURALISTS Demography
B.C.E. Empedocles (490-430) Greeks dominate their neighbors
Anaxagoras (500-428) militarily and economically
450 THE ATOMISTS
B.C.E. Democritus (460-370)
Leucippus
400 THE SOPHISTS
B.C.E. Protagoras The
Gorgias Metaphysical
Socrates (470-399) Period
Plato (428-347)
Aristotle (384-322)
 STOICISM
Zeno (336-264)
EPICUREANISM
350 Epicurus (342-270)
B.C.E. SKEPTICISM
Pyrrho of Elis (365-275) The Decline and Fall of Greek
ECLECTICISM The Ethical “Freedom” (339-322)
Antiochus Period The Hellenistic Dispersion (322-
GREEK SCIENCE 146)
250 Euelid (e. 300)
B.C.E. Archimedes (287-212)
Apolionius (260-200)
Ptolemy

THE JUDAIC-ALEXANDRIAN
SCHOOL
Philo of Alexandria (30 B.C.E.-50
C.E.)
THE NEO-PYTHEGOREAN
SCHOOL
Apollonius of Tiana
50
C.E. to THE NEO-PLATONIC SCHOOL
900 Ammonius Saccas of Alexandria
C.E. (176-242)
Plotinus (205-270)
Greece and Macedonia Become a
Province of Rome (146)
The Roman Empire (146 B.C.E.-192
C.E.)
Decline and Fall of the Roman
The Empire (193-305)
Religious Christianity asserts itself (306-325)
Period Anti-intellectualism and the West
turns in on itself
 St. Augustine (354-430)

John Scotus Erigena (815-877)

Charlemagne and Carolingian
Renaissance (566-1095)
THE MYSTICS The Rise of Islam
St. Peter Damian (1007-1072)
St. Bernard of Clairvaux (1091-
1153)

THE DIALECTICIANS
1000 St. Anselm (1033-1109)
C.E. to Peter Abelard (1079-1142)
1399 John of Salisbury (1110-1182)
C.E. The Period
of The Middle Ages: Crusades
Albertus Magnus (1193-1280) Scholastic Peasant Revolts Wars
Roger Bacon (1214-1294) Philosophy Pestilence
St. Bonaventure (1221-1274)
St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)
John Duns Scotus (1265-1308)
William of Oekham(1285-1349)
Modern and Contemporary Thought in the
West
Maeler Eckharf (1260-1327)

The Renaissance (1300-1576)

1400 Beginning The Reformation (1517-1564)
C.E. to HUMANISM of Modern Wars
1600 Nicholas of Cuan (1401-1464) Humanis Prelude of Colonial Conquest
C.E. Giovanni Pico della Mirandola m
(1463-1494)
Berdino Telesie (1509-1588)
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600)
Tommase Campanella (1568-
1639)

Niccolo Machiaveili (1469-1527) Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

 E
ncylopedia
Denis Diderot (1713-
EMPIRICISM RATIONALISM 1784)
Francis Bacon Rene Descartes (1596- D’ Alembert baron d’
(1561-1626) 1650) Holbach (1723-1789)
Thomas Hobbes Benedict Spinoza (1632- Claude Helvetius (1715-
(1588-1679) 1677) 1771)
John Locke Nicholas de Francois Quesnay
Enlightenment (1632-1704) Malebranche (1538-1715) (1694-1774)
Isaac Newton Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) Baron de Montesquien
(1642-1727) Gottfried W. von (1689-1775)
George Berkeley Leibnitz (1646-1716) Jean Jacues Roussean
(1685-1753) Moses Mendelssohn (1712-1778)
David Hume (1729-1786) Voltaire (1694-1778)
(1711-1776 G.E. Lessing (1729-1718) Georges-Louis
Leclerc,Comte de
Buffon (1707-1788)
Julien de La Mettrie
(1709-1750)
COUNTER KANTIAN CRITISM IDEALISM
ENLIGHTENMENT Immanuel Kant !724-1804) Johann Fichte (1762-1814)
Johann Herder (1744-1803) Friedrich W. von (1775-
Giambattista Vieo (1668- 1854)
1744) Friedrich Schleiermacher
Johann Georg Hamann (1768-1834)
(1730-1788) Georg Hegel (1779-1813)
Johann Herbart (1776-1841)
Arthur Schopenhauer
(1788-1860)
POSITIVISM UTILITARIANISM Rudolf Herman Lotze
French Jeremy Bentham (1748— (1917-1881)
Augusto Comte (1798-1857) 1832) Gustav Theodor Fechner
James Mill (1773-1836) (1801-1887)
Germnan John Stuart Mill (1806-1073)
Ludwig Fauerbach (1804-
1872)
Karl Marx (1818-1883)
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
Friedrich Nietzche (1844- CRITICAL IDEALISM GERMAN
1900) Wilhelm Windelband (1848- PSYCHOLOGISM
1915) Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
Henrich Richert (1863-1936)
Wilhwlm Dilthey (1833-1912)
Rudolf Eucken (1846-1926)

THE NEW IDEALISM

Thomas Hill Green (1836-
1882)
AMERICAN IDEALISM Francis Herbert Bradley
Josiah Royce (1855-1916) (1846-1924)
Bordon Parker Bowne (1847- Bernard Bosanquet (1848-
1910) 1923)
Benedetto Croce (1866-1952)
Giovanni Gentile (1875-1944)

PRAGMATISM EVOLUTIONISM
Charles Sander Pierce (1839- Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
1914) Herbert Spencer (1820-1903)
Ernst Haeckel (1834-1919)
William James (1842-1910)
John Dewey (1859-1952)
EXISTENTIALISM
Soren Kierkegaard (1813-
1855)
Karl Barth (1886-1968)
Earl Jaspers (1883-1969)
Gabriel Marcel (1889-1973)
Jean Paul Sartre (1906-1980)
Albert Camus (1913-1960)
PHILOSOPHICAL
HERMENEUTICS
Hans-Georg Gadamer (1900-
2002)
Paul Ricoeur (1913-)
Neo-Aristotelianism
G.E.M. Anscombe
Alisdair Macintyre
Phillipa Foot Rosalind
Hursthouse, John McDowell,
Martha Nussbaum, Amelie
Rorty, Michael Stocker, and
Michael Slote
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
INSTITUTIONISM
Henri Bergson (1859-1914)
PHENOMENOLOGY
Edmund Husserl (1859-1938)
Martin Heidegger (1889-
1976)
Maurice Merleau Ponty
(1908-1916)
NEO-REALISM
Franz Bretano (1838-1917)
Alexius Meinong (1853-1920)
S.Alexander 91859-1938)
Alfred North Whitehead
(1861-1947)
Bertrand Russell (1872-1970)
George Santayana (1863-
1952)
G.E. Moore (1873-1958)
Moritz Schliek (1882-1936)
Ernst Mach (1838-1916)
Rudolf Carnap (1891-1970)
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889-
1951)
John Wisdom (1904-1993)
Willard Van Orman Quine
(1908-2000)
Max Black (1909-1988)
Alfred J. Ayer (1910-1989)
THE FRANKFURT
SCHOOL
Herbert Marcuse (1898-1979)
Theodor Adorno (1903-1969)
Erich Fronim (1900-1980)
Jurgen Habermas (1929)
CRITICAL RATIONALISM
Karl Popper (1902-1994)
 PLURALISM OBJECTIVISM
Isaiah Berlin (1910-1997) Ayn Rand (1905-1982)
Charles Taylor (1931-) Nathaniel Branden (1930-)

CULTURAL THEORY, STRUCTURALISM, NEO-PRAGMATISM

POSTMODERNISM, AND DECONSTRUCTIONISM Richard Rorty (1931-2007)
Gyorgy Lukaes (1885-1971)
Antonio Gramsei (1891-1937)
Ferdinand de Sanussure (1857-1913)
Claude Levi-Strauss (1908-)
Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
Jacques Derrida (1930-2004)

Contractarianism Feminist Ethics

John Rawls (1921-2002) Nel Noddings (1929-)
Carol Gillian (1937-)
Karen Warren (1953-)
PHILOSOPHICAL REFLECTION
Central to differing phenomenological
methods is reflection. Reflection, in everyday
language, is used to refer to being engaged in
thoughts, daydreaming, or recollecting or
remembering an event in our minds. These
definitions, although needing clarification,
tell us that reflections can never be separated
from life. The concern of reflection is
everyday life, in which it is embedded.
Primary and Secondary Reflection
We have shown how reflection and lived experience are
intimately bound up with one another. On the one hand,
reflection raises experience to the level of rationality. On the
other hand, experience remains to be the source of material for
philosophical reflection. Thus, reflection must continually
return to the richness of meaning and nourishment drawn
from experience. Above is also a discussion on how
philosophical reflection presents a rupture in immediacy of
experience. This means that reflection presupposes
distanciation from experience in order to comprehending, of
grasping, experience and existence.
Two kinds of reflection
Primary reflection- breaks the unity of experience and is the
foundation of scientific inquiry. Husserl speaks of this
breaking up of experience (or analysis) as the natural attitude.
Husserl’s natural attitude refers to the scientific attitude
predominant during this time and carried to the extreme to
become scientific (the belief that only science is authoritative
and all other viewpoints are invalid). This type of reflection is
interested with definitions and with technical and methodical
solutions to problems.
Secondary Reflection- on the other hand, is synthetic; it
unifies rather than divides. It recuperates the unity of original
experience. As such, for phenomenologists, secondary
reflection is the instrument of philosophical reflection. In the
word “Roughly, we can say that where primary reflection tends
to dissolve the unity of experience which is first put before it,
the function of secondary reflection is essentially recuperative;
it reconquers that unity.” It does this by highlighting the
reciprocal connection between the object and the subject (this
time from the Latin subjectum, literally “to throw beneath”).