VARIABLES

• Definition: Variables are properties or characteristics

of people or things that vary in quality or magnitude
from person to person or object to object (Miller &
Nicholson, 1976)
– Demographic characteristics
– Personality traits
– Communication styles or competencies
– Constructs
• in order to be a variable, a variable must vary (e.g.,
not be a constant), that is, it must take on different
values, levels, intensities, or states
Definitions
• Variable: “any entity that can take on a variety of different
values” (Wrench et al, 2008, p. 104)
– gender
– self-esteem
– managerial style
• attributes, values, and levels are the variations in a
variable
– Attribute: political party:
– Value: Democrat, Republican, Independent, etc.
– Attribute: Self-esteem
– Level: High, Medium, Low
Types of Variables
 Qualitative
 Quantitative  Measured in categories
 Measured in  Gender, race, diagnosis
amounts
 Ht, Wt, Test score
 Continuous:
 infinite values in between
 Discrete:  GPA
 separate categories
 Letter grade
 Scales of Measurement
• Nominal Scale: Categories, labels, data carry no numerical value
• Ordinal Scale: Rank ordered data, but no information about distance
between ranks
• Interval Scale: Degree of distance between scores can be assessed with
standard sized intervals
• Ratio Scale: Same as interval scale with an absolute zero point.
 independent variable
• the variable that is manipulated either by the
researcher or by nature or circumstance
• independent variables are also called “stimulus”
“input” or “predictor” variables
• analogous to the “cause” in a cause-effect
relationship
 “operationalization” of the
independent variable
• Operationalization: • Operationalizations can
translating an abstract include:
concept into a tangible, – variations in stimulus
conditions (public schools
observable form in an versus home schooling)
experiment – variations in levels or degrees
(mild vs. moderate vs. strong
fear appeals)
– variations based on
standardized scales or
diagnostic instruments (low vs.
high self esteem scores)
– variations in “intact” or “self-
selected” groups (smokers vs.
non-smokers)
 varieties and types of variables
• Discrete variables – Dichotomous variables:
– Nominal variables: distinct, mutually • true/false, female/male,
exclusive categories democrat/republican
• religions; Christians, Muslims, – Ordered variables: mutually exclusive
Jews, etc. categories, but with an order,
• occupations; truck driver, sequence, or hierarchy
teacher, engineer • fall, winter, summer, spring
• marital status; single, married, • K-6, junior high, high school,
divorced college
– Concrete versus abstract variables
• concrete; relatively fixed,
unchanging
– biological sex
– ethnicity
• abstract; dynamic, transitory
– mood, emotion
– occupation
varieties and types of variables--
continued
• Continuous variables: include constant increments
or gradations, which can be arithmetically
compared and contrasted
– IQ scores
– self-esteem scores
– age
– heart rate, blood pressure
– number of gestures
 Unit of analysis
• Definition: The specific entity being • Ecological fallacy: drawing
examined conclusions about individuals
– individual; self esteem, fluency based on group data
– dyad: self disclosure, touch • committing a “sweeping
– group: roles, norms generalization” about participants
in a research study
– Organization: communication – individualism/collectivism
networks, upward-downward
influence
– Culture: individualism vs.
collectivism
 operationalization
• definition: the specific steps or procedures
required to translate an abstract concept into a
concrete, testable variable
– example: high versus low self-esteem (split-half or
top vs. bottom third?)
– example: on-line versus traditional classroom (how
much e-learning constitutes an “on-line” class?)
 examples of operationalizations
• credibility (high versus low) • “powerless” language style
• culture/ethnicity (self-report) • fear appeals (mild, moderate,
• type of speech therapy (in- strong)
clinic vs. at school, vs. at
home)
• compliance-gaining strategy
preferences (positive versus
negative, self-benefit versus
other benefit)
 dependent variable
• a variable that is observed or measured, and that is
influenced or changed by the independent variable
• dependent variables are also known as “response”
or “output” or “criterion” variables
• analogous to the “effect” in a cause-effect
relationship
 confounding variable
• also known as extraneous variables or intervening or
mediating variables
• confounding variables “muddy the waters”
• alternate causal factors or contributory factors which
unintentionally influence the results of an experiment, but
aren’t the subject of the study
 moderating variable
moderating variables
•a 2nd or 3rd variable that can increase or decrease the relationship
between an independent and a dependent variable.
•for example, whether listeners are persuaded more by the quality or
quantity of arguments is moderated by their degree of involvement
in an issue.
moderating variable
Quiz!

A conditional cash transfer to families leads to payment

of school fees which increases children’s enrollment
school.

MEDIATO MODERAT
R OR
Quiz!

A school-based socioemotional learning program in a

conflict-affected countries improves children’s mental
health, but not for children who witnessed prolonged
and severe violence.

MEDIATO MODERAT
R OR
interchangeability of independent and
dependent variables
• The same concept or construct could serve as the
independent variable in one investigation, and the dependent
in another.
• example: “source credibility”
– as an independent variable; RQ: Does source credibility (low versus
high) have a significant effect on attitude change?
– As a dependent variable; RQ: Does the amount of evidence contained
in a speech affect listeners’ perceptions of the source’s credibility?
• example: “fetal alcohol syndrome” (FAS)
– As an independent variable: RQ: Does severity of FAS correlate
positively with language delay in infants?
– As a dependent variable: RQ: Does the amount of maternal alcohol
use correlate positively with the severity of FAS in infancy?
 Relationships among variables
• Differences
– Differences in kind, degree
• Relationships (correlations)
– Positive correlation
– Negative correlation
– No or neutral correlation