1.

6 THE DIODE

 Diode is a device that conducts current only in one

direction.
 n-type material & p-type material become extremely
useful when
joined together to form a pn junction – then diode is
created
 before the pn junction is formed  no net charge (neutral)
since no. of proton and electron is equal in both n-type and
p-type.
 p region: holes (majority carriers), e- (minority carriers)
n region: e- (majority carriers), holes (minority carriers)
The Depletion Region

THE DIODE (cont..)

Basic diode structure at the instant of
junction formation showing only
majority and minority carriers.
 The Depletion Region
Summary:
When an n-type material is joined with a p-type material:
1. A small amount of diffusion occurs across the junction.
2. When e- diffuse into p-region, they give up their energy and
fall into the holes near the junction.
3. Since the n-region loses electrons, it creates a layer of +ve
charges (pentavalent ions).
4. p-region loses holes since holes combine with electron and will
creates layer of –ve charges (trivalent ion). These two layers
form depletion region.
5 Depletion region establish equilibrium (no further diffusion)
when total –ve charge in the region repels any further diffusion
of electrons into p-region.

THE DIODE (cont..)

 Barrier Potential

 In depletion region, many +ve and –ve charges on

opposite sides of pn junction.
 The forces between the opposite charges form a “field of
forces” called an electric field.
 This electric field is a barrier to the free electrons in the n-
region, need more energy to move an e- through the
electric field.
 The potential difference of electric field across the
depletion region is the amount of voltage required to
move e- through the electric field. This potential
difference is called barrier potential. [ unit: V ]
 Depends on: type of semicon. material, amount of doping
and temperature. (e.g : 0.7V for Si and 0.3 V for Ge at
25°C).

THE DIODE (cont..)

Energy Diagram of the PN Junction and
Depletion Region

Overlapping
THE DIODE (cont..)
 Energy Diagram of the PN Junction
and Depletion Region

 Energy level for n-type (Valence and Cond. Band) << p- type
material (difference in atomic characteristic : pentavalent &
trivalent) and significant amount of overlapping.
 Free e- in upper part conduction band in n-region can easily
diffuse across junction and temporarily become free e- in
lower part conduction band in p-region. After crossing the
junction, the e- loose energy quickly & fall into the holes in
p-region valence band.

THE DIODE (cont..)

 Energy Diagram of the PN Junction
and Depletion Region

 As the diffusion continues, the depletion region begins to form

and the energy level of n-region conduction band decreases
due to loss of higher-energy e- that diffused across junction to
p-region.
 Soon, no more electrons left in n-region conduction band with
enough energy to cross the junction to p-region conduction
band.
 Figure (b), the junction is at equilibrium state, the depletion
region is complete diffusion has ceased (stop). Create an
energy gradient which act as energy ‘hill’ where electron at
n-region must climb to get to the p-region.
 The energy gap between valence & cond. band – remains the
THE DIODE (cont..)
 1.7 BIASING THE DIODE

 No electron move through the pn-junction at equilibrium

state.
 Bias is a potential applied (dc voltage) to a pn junction to
obtain a desired mode of operation – control the width of
the depletion layer.
 Two bias conditions : forward bias & reverse bias
The relationship between the width of depletion layer & the junction current

Depletion Junction Junction

Layer Width Resistance Current
Min Min Max
Max Max Min
 Forward bias

1. Voltage source or bias

connections are + to the p
region and – to the n region.
2. Bias voltage must be greater
than barrier potential (0 .3 V
for Germanium or 0.7 V for
Silicon).
 The depletion region narrows.
 R – limits the current which can
prevent damage to the diode
Diode connection
 Forward bias

 The negative side of the bias

voltage pushes the free
electrons in the n-region
towards pn junction. Flow of
free electron is called electron
current.
 Also provide a continuous flow
of electron through the external
connection into n-region.
 Bias voltage imparts energy to
Flow of majority carries the free e- to move to p-region.
and the voltage across the  Electrons in p-region loss
depletion region energy-combine with holes in
valence band.
 Forward bias

 Since unlike charges attract,

positive side of bias voltage
source attracts the e- left end
of p-region.
 Holes in p-region act as
medium or pathway for these
e- to move through the p-
region.
 e- move from one hole to the
next toward the left.
 The holes move to right
Flow of majority carries toward the junction. This
and the voltage across the effective flow is called hole
depletion region current.
 The Effect of Forward bias on the
Depletion Region

 As more electrons flow into the depletion region, the no. of

+ve ion is reduced.
 As more holes flow into the depletion region on the other side
of pn junction, the no. of –ve ions is reduced.
 Reduction in +ve & -ve ions – causes the depletion region to
narrow.
 The Effect of the Barrier Potential
During Forward Bias
 Electric field between +ve & -ve ions in depletion region
creates “energy hill” that prevent free e- from diffusing at
equilibrium state
-> barrier potential
 When apply forward bias – free e- provided enough energy
to climb the hill and cross the depletion region.
 Electron got the same energy with barrier potential to cross
the depletion region.
 An add. small voltage drop occurs across the p and n regions
due to internal resistance of material – called dynamic
resistance – very small and can be neglected
 Reverse bias

Diode connection
 Reverse bias - Condition that prevents current through the diode
 Voltage source or bias connections are –ve to the p material and
+ve to the n material
 Current flow is negligible in most cases.
 The depletion region widens than in forward bias.
 Shot transition time immediately
after reverse bias voltage is applied

 + side of bias pulls the free electrons in the n-region away from
pn junction cause add. +ve ions are created, widening the
depletion region.
 In the p-region, e- from – side of the voltage source enter as
valence electrons e- and move from hole to hole toward the
depletion region, then created add. –ve ions.
 As the depletion region widens, the availability of majority
 Reverse Current

 Extremely small current exist in reverse bias after the transition

current dies out caused by the minority carries in n & p
regions that are produced by thermally generated electron hole
pairs.
 Small number of free minority e- in p region are “pushed toward
the pn junction by the –ve bias voltage.
 Reverse Current

 e- reach wide depletion region, they “fall down the energy hill”
combine with minority holes in n -region as valence e- and
flow towards the +ve bias Voltage – create small hole current.
 The cond. band in p region is at higher energy level compare to
cond. band in n-region e- easily pass through the depletion
region because they require no additional energy.
 1-8 VOLTAGE-CURRENT
CHARACTERISTIC OF A DIODE
V-I Characteristic for
Forward Bias
o When a forward bias
voltage is applied, there is
current called forward
current, IF .
o In this case with the
voltage applied is less than
the barrier potential so the
diode for all practical
purposes is still in a non-
conducting state. Current
FIGURE 1-26 Forward-bias measurements show
is very small. general changes in VF and IF as VBIAS is increased.
o Increase forward bias
 V-I Characteristic for
Forward Bias

With the applied voltage

exceeding the barrier
potential (0.7V), forward
current begins increasing
rapidly.
But the voltage across
the diode increase only
gradually above 0.7 V.
this is due to voltage drop
across internal dynamic
resistance of semicon FIGURE 1-26 Forward-bias measurements show
material. general changes in VF and IF as VBIAS is increased.
 dynamic resistance r’d
 Plot the result of decreases as you move up the
measurement in Figure curve
1-26, you get the V-I
characteristic curve for
a forward bias diode
 VF - Increase to the
IF zero
right bias
VF  0.7V
 - Increase upward
 After 0.7V, voltage
remains at 0.7V but IF VF  0.7V
increase rapidly.
Below knee, resistance is greatest since current
 Normal operation for a r ' d  VF / I F
increase very little for given voltage,
forward-biased diode is Resistance become smallest above knee where\
above the knee of the a large change in current for given change in
curve. voltage.
 V-I Characteristic for Reverse Bias
 VR increase to the left
along x-axis while IR
increase downward
along y-axis.
 When VR reaches VBR
, IR begin to increase
rapidly.
 Breakdown voltage,
VBR.
Reverse
-not a normal Current
operation of pn
junction devices.
-the value can be vary
for typical Si.
-Cause overheating
Combine-Forward bias & Reverse bias  CompleteV-I
characteristic curve
Temperature Effects on the Diode V-I Characteristic

 Forward biased
diode
T  , I :
F for
a given value
VF of
 Barrier potential
decrease as T
increase.
 For reverse-biased,
T increase, IR
increase. Barrier potential
 Reverse current decreases by 2mV for
each degree increase
below breakdown – in temperature
small & can be
neglected
 1-9 DIODE MODELS

anode cathode

Direction of current

Diode Structure &

Symbol
 The Ideal The Practical
Diode Model Diode Model

DIODE
MODEL

The Complete
Diode Model
 The Ideal Diode Model
Ideal model of diode-
simple switch:
 Closed (on) switch
-> FB
 Open (off) switch
Forward
-> RB
current
 Barrier potential, determined
dynamic resistance by Ohm’s law
VF  0V
and reverse current
all neglected. VBIAS
 Assume to have IF  IR  0A
RLIMIT
zero voltage across VR  VBIAS
diode when FB.
 The Practical Diode Model

• Adds the barrier

potential to the ideal
switch
r 'd model
• is neglected
V  0.7V ( Si )
• From figure F
(c):
VF  0.3V (Ge)
Equivalent to close Open circuit, same as
switch in series with a ideal diode model.
The forward current [by small equivalent voltage
Barrier potential
applying Kirchhoff’s source equal to the
doesn’t affect RB
barrier potential 0.7V
VBIAS  Vlaw
voltage F  Vto 0
R figure
LIMIT Represent byVF
(a)]
V I R produced across the pn
RLIMIT F LIMIT junction

VBIAS  VF I R  0 A
F  Ohm’s Law:
• IBy RLIMIT VR  VBIAS
 The Complete Diode Model

Complete model of diode

consists: r 'd
 Barrier potential r 'R
acts as open
 Dynamic resistance, acts as closed switch switch in
 Internal reverse in series with parallel with
'
resistance,
barrier potential
' the large r R
and small d r
 The forward voltage
consists of barrier
potential
VF  0.7&V voltage
I F rd' drop
across r’d : V  0.7V
I F  BIAS
RLIMIT  rd'

 The forward current:

 Example 1
(1) Determine the forward voltage and forward current
[forward bias] for each of the diode model also find the
voltage across the limiting resistor in each cases. Assumed
rd’ = 10 at the determined value of forward current.

1.0kΩ

1.0kΩ

10V 5V
 Example 1
a) Ideal Model: VF  0
VBIAS 10V
IF    10mA
R 1000
VRLIMIT  I F  RLIMIT  (10 10 3 A)(1 103 )  10V

b) Practical Model: VF  0.7V

(VBIAS  VF ) 10V  0.7V
IF    9.3mA
RLIMIT 1000
VRLIMIT  I F  RLIMIT  (9.3 10 3 A)(1103 )  9.3V
(c) Complete model:

VBIAS  0.7V 10V  0.7V

IF    9.21mA
RLIMIT  rd'
1k  10
VF  0.7V  I F rd'  0.7V  (9.21mA )(10)  792mV
VRLIMIT  I F RLIMIT  (9.21mA )(1k)  9.21V
 1-10 TESTING A DIODE BY
DIGITAL MULTIMETER

Testing a diode is quite simple, particularly if the multimeter

used has a diode check function. With the diode check
function a specific known voltage is applied from the meter
across thediode
With the diode.check
function a good diode will
show approximately 0.7 V
or 0.3 V when forward
biased.
When checking in reverse
bias, reading based on
meter’s internal voltage
source. 2.6V is typical
value that indicate diode
has extremely high
reverse resistance.
When diode is failed open
(defective), open reading voltage is
2.6V or “OL” indication for forward
and reverse bias.

If diode is shorted, meter reads 0V

in both tests. If the diode exhibit a
small resistance, the meter reading
is less than 2.6V.
 OHMs Function
Select OHMs range
Good diode:
Forward-bias:
 get low resistance reading (10 to 100
ohm)
Reverse-bias:
 get high reading (0 or infinity)
 SUMMARY
 Diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits are all
made of semiconductor material.
 P-materials are doped with trivalent impurities
 N-materials are doped with pentavalent impurities
 P and N type materials are joined together to form a
PN junction.
 A diode is nothing more than a PN junction.
 At the junction a depletion region is formed. This
creates barrier which requires approximately 0.3 V
for a Germanium and 0.7 V for Silicon for
conduction to take place.
 SUMMARY

 A diode conducts when forward biased and does not

conduct when reverse biased
 The voltage at which avalanche current occurs is
called reverse breakdown voltage. Reverse breakdown
voltage for diode is typically greater than 50V.
 There are three ways of analyzing a diode. These are
ideal, practical, and complete. Typically we use a
practical diode model.