Geology

• The science which concerns the history of the earth and

it's life, especially as recorded in the rocks.

 GEO - Greek for "earth"

 LOGIS - Greek for "study"

• Why is Geology so important to the Reservoir Engineer?

• Hydrocarbon Origination
 Organic
 Inorganic

M-101 1
Basic Concepts
• The earth was formed some 4 to 5 billion years ago.

• As the earth cooled, Igneous Rocks were formed.

• Rock Cycle begins due to erosion.

• Sedimentary Basins form.

• Accumulation of Algae, Marine Animals and Plants

occurs in Source Rocks.

• Tectonics --> Temperature --> Time = Hydrocarbons

M-101 2
Geological Time Scale
Date in
ERA Period EPOCH Million Years Significant Events

Recent 0 Humans, Ice Ages

QUARTENARY .01
Pleistocene
Pliocene 1 Colorado River Begins
CENOZOIC Miocene 11
TERTIARY Oligocene 25
Eocene 40 Yellowstone Volcanics, Horses
Paleocene 60
70±2
CRETACEOUS Rocky Mountains Begin Normal
Dinosaurs Extinct
135±5 Oil
MESOZOIC JURASSIC Birds Finds
165±10
TRIASSIC Atlantic Ocean Begins
200±20
PERMIEN Appalachian Mtn. Climax
235±30
PENNSYLVANIAN 265±35 Coal Forests
MISSISSIPPIAN Insects - Reptiles
300±40
PALEOZOIC DEVONIAN 350±40
SILURIAN 380±40 Land Plants + Animals
ORDOVICIAN 460±40 Appalachian Mts., Fish
CAMBRIAN 550±50 Marine Animals
PRECAMBRIAN 3000± Oldest Dated Rock, Algae

EARTH IS FORMED 4500±

M-101 3
Formation of Rocks
• Cooling
• Erosion
• Sedimentation
• Tectonics
• Burial

M-101 4
The Rock Cycle
Pressure
Cementation

Sedimentary Sediments
Rocks Erosion

Heat
n
Pressure io Erosion
ros
E

Metamorphic Igneous
Rocks Rocks

Heat
Cooling
Magma

M-101 5
Hydrocarbon Accumulation
• Five Factors Necessary:
1. Mature Source Rock
2. Migration Pathway
3. Reservoir Rock
4. Trap
5. Seal

M-101 6
Source Rock
• Accumulation of Organic Matter
• Preservation of Organic Matter
• Thermal Maturity
 Subsurface heat
 "Oil Window"
• Shale ~ 65%
• Marl ~ 12%
• Carbonate ~ 21%
• Coal ~ 2%

M-101 7
Migration Pathway
• Primary:
 Expulsion from Source Rock

• Secondary:
 Carrier Beds
» Governed by bouyancy
 Fractures and Faults

M-101 8
The Trap
• A geometric configuration of structures and/or strata, in which
permeable rock types (the reservoir) are surrounded and
confined by impermeable rock types.
• Structural Traps:
» Anticlines
» Faults
» Salt Diapers (Domes)
 Stratigraphic Traps:
» Salt Diapers (Domes)
» Uncomformities
» Reefs
» Others
 Combination Traps

M-101 9
Types of Traps

M-101 10
The Seal
• Impermeable Barriers
• Caprocks

• Types of Seals
 Shale ~ 65%
 Evaporites (Salt) ~ 33%
 Carbonates ~ 2%

M-101 11
The Reservoir
Two Required Basic Fundamentals
• Porosity:
 Void space

• Permeability:
 Ability for fluid to flow through rock

Most Common Reservoir Rocks

• Sandstone's ~ 60%
• Carbonates ~ 39%

M-101 12
Porosity
• Porosity % = ( Volume of Voids ) x 100
Total Volume of Rock

• Represented by: 

• Range from 5 to 30%

 Primary: formed during deposition
 Secondary: formed after deposition

M-101 13
Three Main Types of Porosity
1. Inter Connected
 multiple pore throat passages

2. Connected
 single pore throat passages

3. Isolated
 no connection between pores

• 1 + 2 = Effective Porosity

• Ratio of effective porosity to total porosity is very

important..... Permeability!

M-101 14
Example

Inter Connected Isolated Porosity

Porosity

Connected Porosity
M-101 15
 Primary Porosity

Intragranular Porosity (Limestone's) Intergranular Porosity (Sandstone's)

M-101 16
 Secondary Porosity

• Fenestral (Shrinkage) • Solution (Leaching of • Fracture

• Intercrystalline (Between Solution)
Crystals) - Mold
- Vuggy

M-101 17
Porosity Tests

• E-Logs ----------> Gives Total Porosity Values

 Sonic Logs
 Neutron Logs
 Density Logs

• Core Tests ----------> Gives Effective Porosity Values

 Water Saturation
 Gas Saturation
 Mercury Injection

M-101 18
Permeability
• There must be some continuity between pores to have permeability.

• Unit of Permeability is the Darcy.

 It is defined as that permeability which will allow a fluid of one centipoise
viscosity to flow at a velocity of one centimeter per second for a pressure
drop of one atmosphere per centimeter.

M-101 19
Permeability & Fluid Saturation

Relations between Permeability

and Fluid Saturation

Absolute Permeability: Permeability of rock

if 100% saturated with 1 fluid.

Effective Permeability: Permeability of 1

phase only if more than 1 phase exists.

Relative Permeability: Effective

Permeability / Absolute Permeability

Which Permeability do we use in Darcy's

Law?

M-101 20
Darcy’s Law

7.08 x 10-3 k h (Pr - Pwf)

qo = re
o o (ln r + S)
w

qo = Oil flow rate, stb/d

k = Permeability, md
h = Reservoir thickness, ft
Pe = Reservoir pressure, psi
Pwf = Bottom hole flowing pressure, psi
µo = Oil viscosity, cp
ßo = Formation volume factor, res bbls/stb
re = Reservoir drainage radius, ft
M-101 21
rw = Wellbore radius, ft
Darcy’s Law In The Oilfield
7.08 x 1 0-3 k h (P)
Radial Reservoir Flow: Q =
r
  ln ( e ) + S
rw

P = Pr - Pwf

M-101 22
Variables in Darcy’s Law
k, Permeability, (md)

The ability of a formation to transmit fluids through the pore

spaces:

- The greater the permeability, the greater the degree to which

pores are connected.

- Consequently, the greater the ability of the well do produce.

- Obtained from a DST, pressure build-up test, or pressure

drawdown test.

M-101 23
Variables in Darcy’s Law (2)
h, Reservoir Thickness, (ft)

The net productive reservoir thickness:

- Usually obtained from log evaluations (gamma ray log)

Pressure drawdown, (Pr - Pwf), psi

* Pr - The average reservoir pressure

* Pwf - The pressure at the wellbore when the well is flowing

M-101 24
Variables in Darcy’s Law (3)
rw, Wellbore Radius, (ft)

The radius of the wellbore at which Pwf is measured.

 Remember, units are in feet!

o , Formation Volume Factor, (res bbl/stb)

The amount of oil in the formation that is required to give one bbl at the surface
(Stock tank).
 Due to dissolved gas which is released with temperature and pressure
changes.

µo , Oil Viscosity, (cp)

A measure of the fluid’s resistance to flow.
Empirical correlations are used to determine viscosity at different reservoir
temperatures & Pressures.

M-101 25
Variables in Darcy’s Law (4)
re, Reservoir Exterior Radius, (ft)

The radius of drainage.

What is re for 160 acre spacing?

re = A where A= area of circular drainage in sq.. ft.



...80 acre spacing?

...40 acre spacing?

M-101 26
Skin Factor

• Some physical impairment which adds an additional pressure

drop to the system.

• Pseudo Skin

• Formation Damage

• Total Skin = Pseudo Skin + Skin due to Damage

M-101 27
Skin Examples
• Pseudo Skin:
 Producing at high rates --> turbulence
 Collapsed tubing, perforations
 Partial penetration
 Low Perforation Density (Shots/ft)
 Etc.

• Formation Damage:
 Scales
 Organic/Mixed Deposits
 Silts & Clays
 Emulsions
 Water Block
 Wettability Change

M-101 28
Example
An oil well produces 57 B/D under the following reservoir and
producing conditions:

 k = 1 md
 h = 50 ft
 o = 1.23 res bbl/stb
 o = .6 cp
 Pr = 2,000 psi
 Pwf = 500 psi
 rw = .33 ft
 re = 1,320 ft

What is the Skin Factor ?

Is this a candidate well for stimulation ?

M-101 29
Darcy’s Law for Gas
• Why do we use the square of the pressure with the
gas?

2 2
703 x 1 0-6
k h (Pr - Pwf )
qg = r
g Tres Z (ln r e + S)
w

M-101 30
Variables in Darcy’s Law for Gas
Z, Gas Deviation Factor, (fraction)

The Z-factor tells how the gas differs from how it

behaves Vs. an Ideal Gas.

 Obtained from the critical temperature and critical pressure as a

function of the gas gravity.

M-101 31
Phase Behavior of Fluids
What happens to
the fluid as the
Pressure or
Temperature
Changes?

M-101 32
Reservoir Drive Mechanisms

Three principle Drive Mechanisms:

•Solution Gas Drive (Depletion Drive)

• Gas Cap Expansion Drive
• Water Drive

M-101 33
Well Performance
For fluid to flow into the well, some difference in
pressure must exist between the fluid in the reservoir
and the wellbore.

Drawdown = Pr - Pwf

Productivity Index (J), is the ratio between production

rate and total pressure drawdown.
q STB/D
J=
P r - P wf psi

M-101 34
Reservoir Flow
• Wellbore Storage Effects
 Expansion of fluid in the wellbore

• Transient Flow
 Early time of production

• Pseudo steady State Flow

 Rate of pressure decline is constant throughout the reservoir

• Steady State Flow

 Pressure at the outer boundary stays constant

M-101 35
IPR Curves
BHP (Flowing)

BHP (Flowing)
BUBBLE POINT PRESSURE

Formation
Potential

0
GROSS PRODUCTION RATE B/D 0
GROSS PRODUCTION RATE B/D
IDEALIZED IPR CURVE
TRUE IPR CURVE

M-101 36
Well Testing
Well testing will also allow us to determine if a well is producing up to its
potential and verify if a stimulation treatment may be necessary.

Well testing will allow us to determine various reservoir properties such as:
- K
- Skin
- Drainage Area Pressure
- Reservoir heterogenetics or boundaries

HOW?
* Disturb fluid equilibrium in reservoir
* Monitor pressure with time
* Compare response to mathematical solutions
* Calculate K and S

M-101 37
Well Analysis (Nodal Analysis)
In Dowell it is important that we are able to know what causes a
well to produce and to evaluate and identify stimulation
opportunities that exist using well performance evaluation
methods.

The flow rate from a well is basically determined by three

systems:
• The Reservoir
• The Method of Completion
• The Plumbing System

Which can Dowell have an affect on?

M-101 38
Nodal Analysis
• - Possible pressure losses in the producing system for a flowing
well.

M-101 39