GEOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA

Suptdg. Geologist
lfi TC-
Geological Survey of India
Training Institute
Mission-V

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7• Sedimentary rocks are those rocks which form at or near the earth's surface
primarily through:

• Deposition of weathered silicate material by water, wind or ice-Terrigenous/

silic--/volcan
Direct inorganic chemical precipitation from water Chemical / authigenic
constituents.
• Precipitation by organic processes- biochemical, carbonaceous.

VISIBL£ CRAINS CLAY-SIZ£P 6RA1NS IN SOLUTION

SILICICLASTIC ROCKS CICMICALROCk5 BIOCHEMICAL RO€X5

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Distribution of Sedimentary rocks:

Land surfac

* Sedimentary rocks covers 80% of the Earth Crust bv area

4imentary rocks by volume
02 O/oof the Earth
50/o of the Earth Crust

surfacq and:the s,aaflsqr:....

e”difficult”to. presérve.«ompared to:the.

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Distribution of sedimentary rocks throuj/h qeoIo¿;ical time

:ambrian to Recent.

!st known metamorphosed sedimentary

(i Greenland and northern Quebec, la) -3.7—3.8 Ga (e.g. Dauphas et
at., 2007).

imentary rocks began to form once Earth's

.phere and oceans had developed owing to
sing of Earth's interior.

area of Earth's surface covered by entary rocks has increased

progressively
ime as the area of volcanic rocks has been
50

4500 4000

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es

Sedimentary rocks

3000 2000
Age (millions of years)
Archean Proterozoic —->•

ssively reduced by erosion.

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Pre-Archean

(Afler Ronov, A. B., 1983)

:Iative abundance of major Sedimentary Rock types

Volume percent of sedimentary rocl a function of age. (After Ronov, 1981

Sandstone and
conglomerate 11 9»

10a
Jaspilites and their analogues •„
Limestone Evaporites }

OlOlTl|ti

i?iarbonate
rscks 14%
0
75 -

Shales and metamorphic equivalents*

Secondary quartzites

Siltstone, mudstone, and shale 75%

50-

Graywackes

/\rkoses
Quartz
sands

°”
Continental
Submarine volcanogenics extrusives
i i i i
i
ii
5000 4500 3500 2600 1700 950 6(

) Archean Proterozoic Age (10 yea)

•t•WHY TO STUDY SEDIMENTARY ROCKS. ???

archive which provide evolutionary history of life on the Eartl

\>Sedimentary Rocks are the principal repository for information ab the

paleoenvironment through
studying depositional environm wiz. marine (ocean deposits), fluvial
(river deposits),
aeolian (w
*› deposits), glacial, estuarine, lacustrine (lake deposits) etc.

I \‘HeIps in knowing the provenance (i.e. source area of the sedimen

Paleogeographv and palaeoclimatolo.gv.

¥•lt hosts noteworthy economic minerals- Oil, Gas, Coal & radioac\
mineral viz. Uranium.

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SEDIMENTARY ROCK FORMATION

thering and Erosion isportation
osition at
ation, compaction, tation.

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S ep a ra tio n D u rin g
T7B n s p o7t a_t i o n

Sedi enta rocesses: 1.Weathering

1• There are four main types of weathering-
•’ Freeze-thaw.
•‘ Onion skin (exfoliation).
> Chemical & Biological.

Goldich Stability Series

. (resisance to chemical weathering)

Cr stallization 57o•c quao

” (ffiamework)
muscovite mica
(sheet)

MOST STABLE

/mosf covalent bonds)

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biotite mica
(sheet)
amphiboles
(double chain}
pyroxenes
(single chain)
olivine
(isolated tetr.)
K-feldspar *Role of climate
****’””’** &tectonics
Na-rIEh

PlagioclaH
Feldspars

Ca“rich

9 A7

most fictions

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2. Trans ortation: Different modes Textural maturity:

*River = Fluvial
•Sea = Marine
*Wind= Aeolian; Transport of Small Grains
•Glacial=Huge Volumes of Sediment

il
ad Rolling
dissolved
tons
Suspended load (clay)

Mineralogical maturity

Saltation
Substrate

•'^Abundi

CIast collidcs and bounccs another into water

e.g. Quar

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3. Deposition: Takes place in areas of the earth's surface subject to

long term
(millions to tens of millions of years) subsidence resulting in space to
accommodate
sediment (not subject to erosion).

Ciactal

Evaporlte

Schematic diagram ehc•wing the main sedimentary depositional environments

Shallow
•Sediments un‹ different cor

Fluvial
Tidal
water

Oeep
processes b the deposition.

eAcri

occur in wide ran e of tectonic settin

rior basin, intracontinental rifts, and aulacogens.

.ive or riRed continental margins (Atlantic Type Shelf, Slope). anic basins (Deep
ocean floor,
excluding transform fault).

4. Subduction related settings (Converj plate boundary, Trench, Arc-trench Volcanic

Arc).
5. Strike slip/transform fault related se

4. Burial:
¥ Lithification:
•’CompIex process whereby freshly deposited loose grains of sediment
are
converted into rock. Lithification may occur at the time, when sediment is
deposited or
later.

¥‘ Compaction:
*/ •* Pore space reduction.
•^ Removal of interstitial water.
'*' Initiation of diagnentic processes.

¥ Cementation:
•’ Mineral precipitation into pore spaces:
e.g. calcite, quartz, haematite.

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Sedimentar Rocks Classification:
T=Terrigenous

Mudrocks, sandstones, and conglomerates.

A= Allochemical
bio—

• Fossiliferous, oolitic, pellet, or intraclastic limestone.

0= Orthochemical

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Microcrystalline limestone, chert, anhydrite.

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A. Sedimentary Rocks: Terrigenous

0 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON GRAIN SIZE:

Clay Sill Sand Granule

0 004 0 004 0 063 0 063 2 4

Grain size Classification

Pebble 4 16
Cobble ) Bould 16 256 > 256
Example

»2 mm Rudaceous
0.06-2 mm Arenaceous
0.004-0.06 mm Argillaceous
Conglomerate Sandstone Siltstone

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<0.004 mm
Argillaceous
Claystone
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-3Siliciclastic Rocks: Sandstone is defined as a sedimentary rock

with grains of sand sizes (0.06 -2mm).
• Basic classification based on proportions
• Mineral grains (dominantly quartz)
• Matrix (clay to silt-sized clastic materii filling spaces between grains.

irenite = <5
150 0 maWm s$
• Most common minerals are:
• Quartz :
monocrystalline, polycrystalline met., or sed. ‹ mechanically & chemically
stable,
abundant
• Feldspar:
K-spar (sandine, microcline), Plag (Na-Ca)
• Abundant and somewhat stable (often altered)
• Rock (Lithic) Fragments:
• All kinds (including limestone/dolomite )
• Abundant, less stable.

• Also accessory (minor abundance) “heavy” minerals.

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Classification of sandstone (after Pettijohn, 1975)

Mudrock

Wack

A renite

Quartz arenite SubarkDse

Sublitharenite
ArkDse Lithic arkDse

Feldspar

Quartz
Qu artz wack Feldspathic
wacke -“"

50

Lithic wacke

¥ KEY POINTS
•’ Arenites <15% matrix.
•’ Wackes 15-75ᵒ/o matrix

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50 ’’
Lithic fragm en ts
'*‘ Arkose>25ᵒ/ofeldspar.

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Different type of Sandstone (based on their composition)

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O Siliciclastic Rocks: Sandstone

• Sandstone composition indicates source area and tectonic setting.

Llth I os

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Siliciclastic Rocks: Conglomerates

Coarse-grained siliciclastic rock wit muddy or sandy matrix.

Gravel >30% of grains.

Provenance easily determined by composition of clasts.

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Main types:
Conglomerate: rounded clasts in sandy matrix
Breccia: angular clasts in sandy matrix Diamictite: clasts in muddy matrix.
Tillite:Glacial origin clasts.
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:xture

›mposition

Durce

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tCoonlerates
Orthoconglomerates — Grain / clast supported
(clasts are in contact with each other)
Paraconglomerates - Matrix / mud supported
(clasts are not in contact each other)

Polymictic — Clasts composed of several composition

Oligomictic/ Monomictic - Clasts composed of one type of composit

lntraformational : Pebbles originated within the basin.

Eg: Pulivendla conglomerate in Cuddapah basin

Extraformational : Pebbles extrabasinal in origin.

Eg. Gulcheru conglomerate in Cuddapah basin

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Oligomictic Conglomerate — matrix

supported
¥• Polymictic Conglomerates- different types of clasts i.e.
Quartz, jasper and basic rock fragments can be seen in coarse grained sandy matrix.

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Siliciclastic RoCkSE Mudrocks/shale/siltstone/claystone.

Composed of silt & clay-sized particles

. Variable color

• Characterized by fissibility plane.

Deposition takes place under low flow regime or under weak water curren Eg.
Offshore or in
Lagoon.

Shales are highly porous, but due to surface tension phenomenon of watc
and extremely
fine intergranular space shales are impermeable.

How to stud clastic rocks?

Any rock fragment (size is > 4 mm=PeI

Fine-gravel/ Granule (size <4mm)

Cement: dissolved substance that

bounds the sediments.
-
1. Calcareous
2. siliceous

Matrix:
is the finer grains or material that surrounds the larger clasts. It cor of either
clay, silt and
sand.

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B. Allochemical :
IN SOLUTION

BIC¥CñdEM3CAL ROCKS
• Carbonates (>50% primary carb( minerals).

• Limestone (CaC0₃)
Chemical
• biochemical
• Dolomite (CaMg(C03)2)
Chemical
• Excellent indicators of deposi environments; integral to stu‹
past environments
and earth hist

• Important reservoirs for oil and ¿

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OCarbonate Sediment -Origin

nary carbonate sediments form as biogenic particles in
shallow m
ironments (secreted as shells of invertebrates and algae).

Warm water (tropical; 30ON to 30OS latitude)

Shallow shelf; within the photic zone (mostly <10-20 m) Also accumulate in deep
water (pelagic
oozes).
CCD&ACD fluctuation.

rganic precipitates from sea water also occur-

form in continental settings (lacustrine, desert, soil, springs)

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Carbonate Rock Constituents

Carbonate rocks mainly composed of:
• Micrite-
• Lime mud (<0.004 mm)
• Largely remains of fragmental algae and also chemical precipitate.
• Appearance -sub-transluscent matrix.
• Implies deposition in a low energy environment just like in terrigenous
mudston
• Sparite-
• Crystalline carbonate material (>0.004 mm).
• Forms by precipitation (often as cement) or recrystallization during
diagenesis.
• Formed in interstitial pore spaces of carbonate sediment.
• Cement in pores indicates original void space.

• Allochems-
• Transported chemical or biochemical precipitates (fragmental material).
• Include intraclasts, ooliths, peloids, and bioclasts.

• Biolithic elements-
• Formed by organisms in situ.
• Bound together by precipitated material.

O Allochems: Ooliths

• Concentrically laminated carbonate

structures.
• Oolites - <2 mm in diameter
• Thought to be abiogenic in origin
• Layers precipitated onto a grain during wav agitation.

• Pisolites - same as oolites, but >2 mm.

• Oncolites - spheroidal stromatolites (> 1-

2 cm)
concentric la e‹Iae

nucleus. okeietaT fra‹

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O Allochems: Pelloids
• Silt to fine grained sand-sized carbonate particles with no distinctive internal
structure.
• Mostly thought to be fecal pellets.

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Folk's classification of limestone

Sparite (Cement)- VS Micrite (Matrix)

1° Orthochems-binding material

4• Allochems-clast.
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The Dunham Classification of Limestone

' The primary criterion is the texture, which is described in terms of
the propo
carbonate mud present and the framework of the rock i.e. MUD vs GRAIN.
Depositional texture recognizable. Mud-
bearing vs
mud-free sediment

Original components bound (biologically).

Mud vs Grain support.
Calm vs agitated environment.

Q•ig nal cnmpnrents nnt hof›nrt togcthcr during dcposition

Lacks mud
Denositioila! texture recoqrisable

Oriqi neI componerts organically

bouno dur ng deposition

klore than 1OO grains

Wackestone
I.Ialrix- Sup/›orted
rted b}•*2mm
com sorent

Rudstone By orqan si› s By ur ariisrTls By organisms

•›’nich act wh cn crcr. St whicn bu Id a
as baffles ancl bind ‹igid framework

C. Sedimentary Rocks: Orthochemical

—i Orthochemical (chemical
precipitate) sediments and ro
• Dominated by limestones and dolostones of precipitate origin

• Also includes evaporites, chert, iron formations.

• Precipitate from marine or non marine waters due to chemical changes.

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ध�यवाद / Thank You

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