DEFINITION

OF
THEORIES
Contemporary Philosophy
Alexander Arandia
Contents
I. Introduction

II. Discussion

III. Summary

IV. Reflection

V. Conclusion

VI. References

VII. Author Biosketch

 “You cannot prove the theory with
considerable expriments, but one experiment
is enough to deny all theory.”

—Albert Einstein
INTRODUCTION
Introduction

Sometimes people haave preconceived ideas about something. Same is true when we hear the word “Theory”.Most people who think that
theories have less or no value in life and therefore no practical value. That is exactly true to me. I have not understood its significance in
everyday life and I did not pay attention to it. Then, as become an educator theories are still haunting me and still stumbled to it numerous
times in trainings and in seminars.Therefore, I come to a conclusion that theories are there for a reason and it must be relevant and
important as it is being repeated in many disciplines, in Science and Mathematics for example. According to etymologyonline, it was first
used in 1950’s. It means "conception or mental scheme,derived from late Latin “theoria.” It was Pythagoras who gave the word theory the
specific meaning that led to the classical and modern concept of a distinction between theory and practice.The word theory often used
erroneously by people to explain something. While theories in many disciplines can be hard for some to understand, in ordinary parlance a
theory is just to explain an event or it could be just an idea to predict an event.This project therefore, aims to define theory in scientific
perspective as theories in academic discipline should not be speculative but must be dependable and be effective in its practice. Theory in
education, has the same role as theory in physics, chemistry, biology, or psychology – that is, providing general explanations and guiding
research.
Discussion
You could enter a subtitle here if
you need it
 Definition
Different researchers have presented different definitions of a theory. (Odi, 1982; Silverman, 2006; Vogt,1993; Babbie, 1992;
Schwandt, 1997; Merton, 1957) Here are some definitions.Theory is a systematic, develped, and organized ideas that explains a
phenomena. It is a and a theory a total set of empirically testable, interconnected, ideas formulated to explain those
phenomena1 (Doherty, Boss,LaRossa, Schumm, & Steinmetz, 1993; White &Klein, 2002). According to Corley and Gioia
(2011), a theory is a re-lationship of concepts that shows how and why a phe-nomenon occurs. It is made up of “constructs
linkedtogether by propositions that have an underlying,coherent logic and related assumptions” (Davis, Eisen-hardt, &
Bingham, 2007, p. 481). Kerlinger’s defines theory as a set of interrelated constructs, definitions, and propositions that presents
a systematic view of a phenomena by specifying relationships among variables with the purpose of explaining pr predeicting
phenomena.
Definition
Schutt defines theory as a logically interrelated set of propositions about empirical reality.
These propositions are comprised of:
1. Definitions: Sentences introducing terms that refer to the basic concepts of the theory
2. Functional relationships: Sentences that relate the basic concepts to each other. Within these we have
a. Assumptions or axioms
b. Deductions or hypotheses
3. Operational definitions: Sentences that relate some theoretical statement to a set of possible observation.
Despite the variations of the different authors in their definitions, it is evident that all agree that a theory is comprised of
elements or building blocks. Theory is systemetic and follows a structure. Davis etal. (2007, p. 481) brought together the
views of somescholars of theory development and enumerated fourelements of a theory.These are constructs, propositions,
logical arguments and assumptions.
4 STRUCTURES OF THEORY

By definition, theory must have four basic criteria: conceptual definitions, domain limitations, relationship-
building, and predictions. Theory-building is important because it provides a framework for analysis, facilitates
the efficient development of the field, and is needed for the applicability to practical real world problems. Depoy
& Gitlin( 2011) has suggested Concepts, Construct, Relationships and Propositions to be the structure of a
theory.

1.Concept

Concept are the building blocks of thoughts. A concept is a generally accepted collection of meanings or
characteristics associated with certain events, objects, conditions, situations, and behaviors. Classifying and
categorizing objects or events that have common characteristics beyond any single observation creates concepts.
We abstract such meanings from our experiences and use words as labels to designate them. But the nature of
concepts and the constraints that govern a theory of concepts have been the subject of much debate (Margolis &
Laurence 1999, Margolis & Laurence 2015).
4 STRUCTURES OF THEORY

2. Construct
According to Widaman,construct is a proposed attribute of a person that often cannot be measured directly, but can be assessed
using a number of indicators or manifest variables.
Constructs are not directly observable.An example of a construct are categories.Categories are not directly observable but, it
shares concepts that are observable. (Depoy & Gitlin,2011)
3. Relationships
According to Depoy & Gitlin ( 2011) relationships are associations of two or more constructs or concepts.Wacker said causal
relationship should show why and how conceptual definitions are related to measurements.
Sutton and Staw (1995) believe a strong theory should be simple and interconnected.It should be able to predict, to explain,
and to delight. In other words,theories begin with insights that have to be developed into concepts and relationships. These
concepts and relationships are then connected and integrated into a whole. Insight alone, without conceptual
connections,cannot make a theory (Rindova, 2011). Sutton and Staw (1995) insisted that when researchers present variables
and constructs in a study, they must know that these are not theories. For constructs variables to become theory, researchers
have to show how they emerged and must explain their connections.
According to Jacob Dankasa ( 2015) to develop a good theory one should be clear in its categories or propositions and hypotheses so that
they can be verifiable in replicated research. Glaser and Straus (1967) added that theory developers must not try tof orce categories where
there are none. Instead, categories should come naturally and be identified in the datau sed for the study. When created, the theory should give
meaningful explanation to whatever behavior isstudied. Thus, a good theory should not only be understood by the professionals in the field of
study, but also by nonprofessionals, especially if it is a theory thatis based on an observed behavior.

4. Propositions or Principles

Proposition is a statement that governs a set of relationship and gives them structure. It also shows the direction of the relationship and how
each variable or construct affects each other. ( Giblin & Depoy, 2011)It is a tentative and conjectural relationship between constructs that is
stated in a declarative form. It is different from a hypothesis since research proposition is a statement about the concepts that may be judged
as true or false. When a proposition is formulated for empirical testing, it is called a hypothesis. (Cooper et al: 1998: 43). Theory is a set of
interrelated concepts, definitions, assumptions, and generalizations that systematically describes and explains regularities in behavior in
educational organizations. Moreover, hypotheses are derived from the theory to predict additional relations among the concepts. When the
hypotheses receive overwhelming empirical support, the accepted hypotheses become principles (Hoy & Miskel, 2013)On the other
hand,proposition is dependent on on a prior research and its purpose is to propose a link between two concepts in a situation where the link
cannot be verified by experiment. Concepts and principles serve two important functions. They help us to understand or explain what is going
on around us and helps predict future events.
Approaches in Building Theories

Steinfeld and Fulk (1990) recommended four such approaches. The first approach is to build theories inductively based on
observed patterns of events or behaviors. Such approach is often called “grounded theory building”, because the theory is
grounded in empirical observations. This technique is heavily dependent on the observational and interpretive abilities of the
researcher, and the resulting theory may be subjective and non –confirmable. The second approach to theory building is to
conduct a bottom-up conceptual analysis to identify different sets of predictors relevant to the phenomenon of interest using a
predefined framework. The third approach to theorizing is to extend or modify existing theories to explain a new context, such
as by extending theories of individual learning to explain organizational learning. While making such an extension, certain
concepts, propositions, and/or boundary conditions of the old theory may be retained and others modified to fit the new
context. The fourth approach is to apply existing theories in entirely new contexts by drawing upon the structural similarities
between the two contexts. This approach relies on reasoning by analogy, and is probably the most creative way of theorizing
using a deductive approach.
 Attributes of a Good Theory

Hasker 1935 has enumerated three criteria of a good theory.

He said that a good theory should be logically consitemt.The building blocks of the theory should be consistent with each
other. It should be able to unify the data.Secondly, a good theory should agree with other known facts.Therefore, it must be
factually adequate. British philosopher Karl Popper stated in the 1940’s that for theories to be valid, they must be falsifiable.
Falsifiability ensures that the theory is potentially disprovable, if empirical data does not match with theoretical propositions,
which allows for their empirical testing by researcher. Lastly, he added that a good theory must have the explanatory power
that it should be satisfied with the explanation a theory has presented. It should be comprehensive and simple that it gives clear
and direct explanation of a phenomenon.
Summary

Theory is definition varies from author to another author. In general, they defined theory as an explanation to a phenomenon
backed up with data. Some researcegers would say that the components of a theory are concepts and principles.Others
would say it consists of concepts, constructs, relationships, and principles, while others include assumptions. The terms
concept and construct are often used interchangeably. Sociologists are more apt to use concept, whereas psychologists
typically favor the word construct. Both refer to a term that has been given an abstract, generalized meaning. Although
concepts are by definition abstract, there are different levels of abstraction. Assumptions are generalizations if they specify
the relationship among two or more concepts.Hypotheses are generalizations with limited empirical support.Principles are
generalizations with substantial empirical support. Therefore, a theory in a sense is made up of principles and these
principles are supported with empirical data. A good theory must have its concepts and principles logically consistent to each
other.It shoud be falsifiable meaning it does not contradict other facts.Lastly, it should be able to explain what it intends to
explain clearer and better than other theories.Other researchers added parsimony to gauge a good theory. The concept is
attributed to 14 th century English logician Father William of Ockham, suggested that a good theory is simple.
Reflection
Reflection
It is overwhelming to learn that formulating a theory is a painstaking. It is not guess, it is not even a hypotheses.But, it build on the
concepts and assumptions. I realized that for one to make his own theory, one must be skillful in collecting data and being attentive to
details.A theorist is skillful in indentifying patterns and relationships. He is also reflective. After gathering the facts and data he
mustreflect inorder to make assumptions and devise a plan to find empirical date that would support these assumptions and finally come
up with principles and laws. It is a meticulous and sophisticated, that a researcher, a scientist, or theorist should devote a large amount of
time just to prove or disapprove an idea, explain why such phenomena happened, and to predict future events.I put my hat down to the
people who willingly engage themselves in building theories. I admit that a I had impression that theories are mere conjectures and that
they really don’t have use in real lifescenarios and situations, but I recognized its importance and usefulness. However, of course there
are countless theories that as a person and an educator I have to be warry of which theory should I accept and find beneficial in my craft.
For example, there are many learning theories that explain how students learned and how should impart knowledge as an educator, but I
can’t use them all altogether. I have to use my professional judgement in this case. Theory when fully understood is helpful and useful in
practical day to day life. I can remember my teacher in Physics once asked when should a vendor weigh mangoes to sell in an elevator.
Should a vendor weigh mangoes when its going up or down. He was testing our understanding on the law of gravity.There is really a
practical implications why theories are developed. The motivation and dedication of the theorist and researchers to their work is highly
commendable and admirable
Conclusion
Reflection
Theories is a product of human inquisitiveness.Human needs an aswer or an explanation to understand the world around him. He
therefore, involves himself to find solutions and explanations.

Theories are backed with empirical data, it can be disaaproved or is able to disapprove an existing theory.

Theories need not to be complicated, because a good theory is simple and easily understood.

Theories have practical implications in school administration and should not remain in books alone but, must be applied.Theories can
help leaders by giving them the benefit of different perspectives. Administrators can compare their observations against theories that
have combined and synthesized the experiences of others. An educational leader limited by his interpretation of the facts of a given
situation can use knowledge of theories to overcome this by gaining a broader perspective and re-examining available information in this
context.
RESOURCES

Kerlinger, Fred N. (1973) Foundations of Behavioral Research. 2nd edition. Holt, Rinehart and Winston

Margolis, Eric and Stephen Laurence, "Concepts", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2019 Edition), Edward
N. Zalta (ed.), URL = <https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2019/entries/concepts/>.

Leggett, A., 2011, ‘Constructs, variables and operationalization’, in J.F. Hair, R.P. Bush & D.J. Ortinau (eds.), Marketing
Research within a Changing Information Environment, pp. 56–93, McGraw-Hill, Boston, MA.

DePoy, E., & Gitlin, L. N. (2005). Introduction to research: Understanding and applying multiple strategies. St. Louis, Mo:
Mosby

Wacker(1998).A definition of theory: research guidelines for different theory-building research methods in operations
management,Journal of Operations Management,Volume 16, Issue 4,

Friedman(2003)Theory construction in design research: criteria: approaches, and methods,Design Studies,Volume 24, Issue 6,

Fulk, Janet & Schmitz, Joseph & Steinfield, Charles. (1990). A social influence model of technology use.
10.4135/9781483325385.n6.
Author’s Biosketch