Chapter 7.

Free and Forced Response of Single-Degree-of-Freedom Linear Systems

7.1 Introduction
•Vibration: System oscillates about a certain equilibrium position.
•Mathematical models: (1) Discrete-parameter systems, or lumped systems.
(2) Distributed-parameter systems, or continuous systems.
Usually a discrete system is a simplification of a continuous system through a suitable “lumping” modelling.
•Importance: performance, strength, resonance, risk analysis, wide engineering applications

Single-Degree-of-Freedom (Single DOF) linear system

•Degree of freedom: the number of independent coordinates required to describe a system completely.

Single DOF linear system: m&(t ) + cx&(t ) + kx(t ) = F (t )

x&

Two DOF linear system: ⎧ m& x&1 (t ) + 2kx1 (t ) −kx 2 (t ) = 0

⎨
x&2 (t ) −kx1 (t ) + 2kx 2 (t ) = F (t )
⎩m&
System response
•Defined as the behaviour of a system characterized by the motion caused by excitation.
•Free Response: The response of the system to the initial displacements and velocities.
•Forced Response: The response of the system to the externally applied forces.
7.2 Characteristics of Discrete System Components
The elements constituting a discrete mechanical system are of three types:
The elements relating forces to displacements, velocities and accelerations.
• Spring: relates forces to displacements
X1 X2

Fs Fs
Fs
Slope K is the spring stiffness, its unit is N/m.

X2-X1
0 Fs = k ( x 2 −x1 )

Fs is an elastic force known as restoring force.

 • Damper: relates force to velocity
x&1 x&2
The damper is a viscous damper or a dashpot
Fd Fd
c
Fd Slope C is the viscous damping coefficient, its unit is N·s/m

x&2 −x&1
0

Fd = c( x&2 −x&1 )

Fd is a damping force that resists an increase in the relative velocity x&2 −x&1
• Discrete Mass: relates force to acceleration
&
x&

m Fm

Fm Slope m, its unit is Kg

&
x&
0

F = m&
x&
Note: 1. Springs and dampers possess no mass unless otherwise stated
2. Masses are assumed to behave like rigid bodies
 • Spring Connected in Parallel
k1
x1 x2
Fs1 = k1 ( x 2 −x1 )
Fs Fs Fs 2 = k 2 ( x 2 −x1 )

k2
n
Fs = Fs1 + Fs 2
k eq = k1 + k 2 keq = ∑ki
Fs = k eq ( x 2 −x1 )
i =1
• Spring Connected in Series
x1 x0 x2 Fs = k1 ( x0 −x1 )
Fs Fs Fs = k 2 ( x2 −x0 )
k1 k2
1 1 −1 n
keq = ( + ) 1 −1
Fs = k eq ( x 2 −x1 )
k1 k2
keq = (∑ )
i=1 ki
7.3 Differential Equations of Motion for First Order and Second Order
Linear Systems
• A First Order System: Spring-damper system
k x(t) Free body diagram:
Fs = k x(t )
Fs(t)
F(t) F(t) Fd = c x&(t )
Fd(t)

F (t) −Fs(t) −Fd (t) = 0 c x&(t ) + k x(t ) = F (t )

• A Second Order System: Spring-damper-mass system
k x(t) Free body diagram:
Fs(t)
m F(t) m F(t)
Fd(t)

F (t ) −Fs (t ) −Fd (t ) = m &

x&
(t ) m&(t ) + c x&(t ) + k x(t ) = F (t )
x&
 7.4 Harmonic Oscillator
k x(t) Second order system:
m F(t) m&(t ) + c x&(t ) + k x(t ) = F (t )
x&

Undamped case, c=0: 2 2k

x&(t )+ ω x(t )= 0
& n ω =n (1)
m

Solution: x(t )= A cosωnt + B sin

ωnt
x(t) = C cos(ωnt−φ) φ is called Phase angle
With initial conditions x(0) = x 0 , x&(0) = v0
v0
x(t )= x 0 cosω n t + sin
ωnt
ωn
v v0
C = x + ( 0 )2
2
and φ = tan−1
0
w x0ω n
Period(second): 2π Natural frequency: ωn 1
T= Hertz(Hz) fn = =
ωn 2π T
Example:
A = 10 m, f n = 1 Hz , ω n = 2π rad / s,

φ=0

φ = 90 o = π / 2 rad

φ = 180 o = π rad
 7.5 Free Vibration of Damped Second Order Systems
• A Second Order System: Spring-damper-mass system
k x(t) Free body diagram:
Fs(t)
m F(t) m F(t)
Fd(t)

c
F (t ) −Fs (t ) −Fd (t ) = m &
x&
(t ) m&(t ) + c x&(t ) + k x(t ) = F (t )
x&

• Express it in terms of nondimensional parameters:

x&(t) + 2ζ ω n x&(t) +ω n2 x(t) = 0

& (1.7.1)
c
Viscous damping factor: ζ =
2mω n
• The solution of (1.7.1) can be assumed to have the form, x (t )= Ae st

We can obtain the characteristic equation

s2 + 2 ζ ω n s+ ω n2 = 0 With solution:
s1
= (−ζ ± ζ 2 −1)ω n
s2
s1
= (−ζ ± ζ 2 −1)ω n s1
s2
(1) ζ = 0, = ±i ω n
s2
Undamped case,
the motion is pure
oscillation

(2) 0 < ζ < 1, s1 ,s2 are complex conjugates.

Underdamped Case

(3) ζ = 1,s1,2 = −ω n
Critical damping

(4) ζ > 1, s1 → 0, s 2 → −∞
The locus of roots plotted Overdamped case,
as a function of ζ the motion is
aperiodic and decay
exponentially in
terms of
x (t ) = A1e s1t + A2e s2t =[ A1 exp( ζ 2 −1ω n t ) + A2 exp(− ζ 2 −1ω n t )] e −ζω n t

ζ = 1, Critical damping

ζ > 1, Overdamped case

 i 1−ζ 2 ω n t )+ A2 exp(
x (t )= [A1 exp( −i 1−ζ 2 ω n t )]e −ζω n t

x(t )= (A1e iωd t + A2e −iωd t )e −ζω n,t where ω d = 1−ζ 2 ω n the frequency of the
damped free vibration
x(t) = A e−ζω nt cos(ω d t−φ)

Figure 1.7.3

0 < ζ < 1, Underdamped Case

as t→ ∞, x(t) → 0
 7.6 Logarithmic Decrement
• Experimentally determine the damping of a system from the decay of the
vibration amplitude during ONE complete cycle of vibration:

x1 A e−ζω nt1 cos(ω d t1 −φ)

=
x2 A e−ζω nt2 cos(ω d t2 −φ)
2π
Let t 2 = t1 + T , T = , We obtain
ωd
x1 e −ζω nt1
= −ζω n (t1+T ) = eζω n t
x2 e
x1 2πζ
Introduce logarithmic decrement δ = ln = ζω nT =
x2 1 −ζ 2
δ
ζ = δ
(2π ) 2 + δ 2 for small damping, ζ ≅
2π
• For any number of complete cycles:

x1 x x xj 1 x
= 1 2L = (e ζω nT )j = e jζω nT δ = ln 1
x j +1 x 2 x3 x j +1 j xj+1
 7.7 Energy Method
Total energy of a spring-mass system on a horizontal plane:
1 1 2
T + V = mx& + kx
2

2 2
d
(T + V ) = m xx&+ kxx
&& &= 0
dt
m&
x&+ kx= 0
1 1
Tmax = Vmax m(ω n x max ) 2 = k ( x max ) 2
2 2

ωn = k m