BSM210

PRINCIPLES
OF
MARKETING
LECTURE 3
 In this lecture, you will be
learning about:
• Product definition and product
Unit 3: levels
• Product planning and
Marketing development, product
decisions classifications, product
differentiation and positivity
• Brand decisions and brand
accounting
• Packaging and labelling
 • Anything that can be offered to a market for
attention, acquisition, use or consumption that
might satisfy a -want or need. It includes
physical objects, services, persons, places,
organizations and ideas.
Product • Every product is made at a cost and each is
sold at a price. The price that can be charged
definition and depends on the market, the quality, the
marketing and the segment that is targeted.
product levels Characteristics of a product
 A product needs to be relevant:
The users must have an immediate use for it. A
product needs to be functionally able to do what
it is supposed to, and do it with a good quality
Continuation
 A product needs to be communicated:
Users and potential users must know why they need to use it, what
benefits they can derive from it, and what difference it does to their
lives. Advertising and 'brand building' best do this.
 A product needs a name:
A name that people remember and relate to. A product with a name
becomes a brand. It helps it stand out from the clutter of products and
names.
 A product should be adaptable:
with trends, time and change in segments, the product should lend itself
to adaptation to make it more relevant and maintain its revenue stream.
Product levels
• A product is more than a simple set of tangible features. Consumers tend
to see products as complex bundles of benefits that satisfy their needs.
When developing products, marketers must first identify the core
consumer needs that the product will satisfy, then design the actual
product and finally find ways to augment it in order to create the bundle of
benefits that will best satisfy consumers.
• Today, most competition takes place at the product augmentation level.
Successful companies add benefits to their offers that will not only satisfy,
but also delight the customer. For instance, hotel guests find chocolates on
the pillow or a bowl of fruit. The company is saying 'we want to treat you
in a special way'. However, each augmentation costs the company money,
and the marketer has to ask whether customers will pay enough to cover
the extra costs.
• Moreover, augmented benefits soon become expected benefits: hotel
guests now expect cable television, trays of toiletries and other amenities
in their rooms. This means that competitors must search for still more
features and benefits to differentiate their offers.
Continuation
The product level include the core,
actual, and augmented product
levels.
 Core product: is the basic benefit
offered by the product to the
consumer (What is the buyer
really buying?).
 Actual product: physical or
functional features, packaging,
style, quality, brand name.
 Augmented product: additional
benefits or services such as credit,
delivery services, installation, and
warranties.
 Product planning
• The product planning process starts either with a recognised
customer need or with a basic product idea established through
market research or other sources. Regardless of the pedigree of the
Product product idea—it may originate from a salesman, a customer, the
company’s advertising agents, the technical research and develop­

planning
ment department, the suggestions box.
• Product planning is a technique of planning all the aspects of a

and
product in its relationship with the market. It answers several basic
questions related to the product such as what type of product? How
much, when, where, at how much, for whom etc. In answering all
developmen these questions, a marketer tries to match the products of the
company with the market expectations.

t • The aim of product planning is to avoid designing of unsuitable

products and all the related expenses. The present day customer will
not accept any product which does not suit his requirements in any
way-price, style, designing, features, distribution etc. Product
planning is always done keeping in mind the market or consumer
expectations.
Continuation

• Product planning is the process of determining that line of products which can secure maximum net
realization from the intended markets. It is an “act of marking out and supervising the search, screening,
development, and commercialization of new products; the modification of existing lines; and the
discontinuance of marginal or unprofitable items”.
Objectives of product planning
 To meet the customer needs – Successful marketing lies in identifying and meeting customer needs.
Product planning is a technique which enables identification and meeting of customer needs through
working with the customers and securing their feedback. This makes possible delivering customer
satisfaction.
 To increase the sales – Product planning enables a company to manufacture appropriate products which
satisfy customer expectations and thereby increase sales.
 To optimally utilize resources – Every company has limited resources in terms of money, material and
human resources. Product planning enables the company to make the best use of such limited resources
by channelizing them towards the most appropriate products.
Continuation

 To analyse the company’s strengths and weaknesses – Product planning analyses the
strengths and weaknesses of the company in the light of the market requirements. This
enables the company to consolidate on its strengths and overcome its weaknesses.
 Survival of the firm – Product planning enables a company to survive in a highly
competitive market through its components such as product innovation, renovation
and elimination.
 Commercial success – Product planning enables a company to achieve commercial
success by coordinating the activities of all the specialists in the company who
contribute to the product’s performance in the marketplace. This is done through
product development teams, marketing executives, quality managers and sales
representatives.
Continuation

Achieving the goals of marketing management – Product management and marketing management share
similar objectives, which are to maximize revenue and profit by meeting customer needs. Product
managers work closely with marketing managers, using research from the marketplace to plan and
prioritize product development programs, and briefing marketing teams on the benefits of new products
so that they can develop effective customer communications.
To plan effectively – A key objective for product management is planning and developing the specifications
for a range of products or a product portfolio that meets the long-term strategic plan. The strategic plan
may require development of new products to meet the needs of new market sectors or improvements and
extensions to the current product range to increase share in the existing sectors.
To conform to time schedules – Product managers have to meet time and budget objectives. To meet the
demands of the market and counter competitive pressures, they must be able to conclude product
development programs on time and on budget. That enables your company to reduce the time to bring
new or improved products to market and stay ahead of your competitors.
 1. Product Investigation:
• Before preparing the product for marketing, marketing research
is carried out to know the desired need of the consumers so
that product’s size, colour, design, features, package, price etc.
are according to their requirements and only then the product
satisfying all these choices is to be produced.

Main 2. Change in Commodity According to Demand:

• If the existing product needs certain modifications according to

characteristics
the demand, then collection of necessary facts and making
changes in the product accordingly are also part of product
planning.

of product
3. To Know the Practical Aspect of the Product:
• After knowing the product features desired by the consumers,
it is important to know whether it is practicable to develop a

planning
product exactly what the consumers want.
4. Discontinuance of Product:
• Product Planning involves the decision regarding the
elimination of the unprofitable product or product lines so that
the resources may be used to some other product profitably.
 Product planning has become increasingly vital to gain and hold
competitive edge in the market. Properly planned and well-developed
products help place a firm in the strong competitive position. The
following are some of the reasons why product planning is important:
 Starting Point of the Marketing:
Product planning involves decisions regarding the product at different
stages of its life cycle from time to time. According to Stanton, ‘Product
Importance Planning is the starting point’. Any decision regarding the production,
modification and elimination of a product may affect the marketing

of product policies.
Thus product planning is the starting point of all marketing programmes.

planning Marketing activities revolve around the product planning. All the
elements of marketing programme of a business unit, i.e., price policies,
distribution channels, advertising policies and programmes, sales
promotion and personal selling etc., are affected by the decisions
concerning product planning.
• Wide Scope:
• The scope of Product Planning is very wide.
Continuation

 Means of Fulfilling Social Liability:

• Product planning is also an important means of discharging social responsibilities of the business. Object of every
business or industrial enterprise is to earn maximum possible profits. Every business or industrial enterprise bears a
great responsibility of meeting and fulfilling social requirements and expectations.
 Indicators to Managerial Ability:
• Product planning is considered as a symbol of managerial ability. If an enterprise does not undertake the process of
product planning it is considered lack of product planning which means managerial bankruptcy in the organisation.
• Thus product planning is not an activity. It is a process which embraces all the efforts of an enterprise.
 Competitive Tool:
• Product planning acts as a competitive weapon by making proper decisions regarding product attributes, price,
consumer services, promotion. The success of marketing efforts depends very much upon the extent to which product
of the enterprise is able to face the competition. Decisions regarding modification or improvement in the product are
taken with a view to keep the competitive forces out of the market or to have an edge over competitor’s products.
Components of product
planning
Product planning deals with the following aspects of product:
1. Product innovation
In marketing innovation means developing various techniques that will satisfy
the needs of the customers in a much better and effective way. It creates new
needs and enlarges the market for the product. This task is done by the
following-effective products, processes, services, technologies, or ideas that
are made available to markets and society. Innovation differs from invention.
Innovation refers to the use of a better and, as a result, novel idea or method,
whereas invention refers more directly to the creation of the idea or method
itself.
Innovation also differs from improvement. Innovation refers to the notion of
doing something different rather than doing the same thing better.
Innovation is also the process by which an idea or invention is translated into
a good or service for which people will pay, or something that results from
this process.
Continuation
2. Product diversification
Diversification also means expansion of the business by adding new products to the
existing product mix. Therefore, only an existing company can diversify. Types of
product diversification include: horizontal, vertical and concentric.
3. Product standardization
This means establishment of certain standards based on a few inherent attitudes of
the goods such as nutritional content, size, shape, colour, composition, quality, taste,
performance etc. A standard itself is a measure of the above attributes. The products
are compared and conformed to the standards.
Standardization also means product rationalization. This means trying to reduce the
number of varieties or variants of the products, so that instead of carrying a large
number or varieties, a fewer varieties will be offered to the customers.
Standardization is actually done by merging certain varieties wherein the differences
among them are either very minimal or do not matter.
Continuation

4. Product customization
Customization means manufacturing products in accordance with the individual tastes and preferences of different
customers and at the same time maintain large scale production. This technique involves maintaining the basic design of
the product uniformly but, simultaneously infusing certain changes which enable the products to become suitable to
different people.
5. Product elimination
Any product no matter how well it is received by the market, how successful it is commercially, will face a downturn in the
long run and become obsolete. A company generally improvises such a product, repositions it an offers it to the market.
Beyond a certain point of time, even such strategies do not work and people will stop buying such a product.
Product elimination means foreseeing such a situation and withdrawing a weak product from the market. A firm has to get
rid of some products to maintain an effective product mix. A weak product costs the firm financially. In addition, too much
of a marketer’s time and resources are spent trying to revive it. This, in turn, reduces the time and resources available for
modifying other products or developing new ones.
Product development

Product development typically refers to

Product development takes place when a
all of the stages involved in bringing
firm introduces new products into a
a product from concept or idea, through
market in which it is well established. In
market release and beyond. In other
other words, product development is the
words, product development incorporates
introduction of new products in the
a product's entire journey, including:
present market. The firm by offering new
Identifying a market need.
or improved products to present markets
Conceptualizing and designing
can satisfy the present customers better.
the product.
New product development process

Idea Screening Idea Development Commercial

Generation Evaluation -ization
Ideas from: Strengths Concept R&D Finalize
Customers and testing Develop product and
and users Weaknesses Customer model or marketing
Marketing Fit with reactions service plan
research objectives Rough prototype Start
Competitors Market estimates Test production
Other trends of cost, marketing and
markets Rough ROI sales, mix marketing
Company estimate profits Revise plans “Roll out” in
people as needed select
Middlemen ROI estimate markets
Final ROI
estimate
 Idea generation
This is the initial stage where a business sources for ideas regarding a new product.
Some of the sources for new product ideas include the business customers,
competitors, newspapers, journals, employees and suppliers. Small businesses may be
limited when it comes to technical research-based idea generation techniques. This
stage is crucial as it lays the foundation for all the other phases, the ideas generated
shall guide the overall process of product development.
 Screening
The generated ideas have to go through a screening process to filter out the viable

Continuatio ones. The business seeks opinions from workers, customers and other businesses to
avoid the pursuit of costly unfeasible ideas. External industry factors affecting small
businesses, such as competition, legislation and changes in technology, influences the

n enterprise's decision criteria. At the end of the screening process, the firm remains
with only a few feasible ideas from the large pool generated.
Idea evaluation
The enterprise undertakes research to find out the potential costs, revenues and
profits arising from the product. The business conducts a SWOT analysis to identify the
strengths, weakness opportunities and threats existing in the market. The market
strategy is set out to identify the product's target group, which facilitates
segmentation of the product’s market. Market segmentation is important as it enables
the firm to identify its niche. The identified niche influences most of the marketing
decisions.
Continuation

Development
Product development entails the actual design and manufacture of the product.
Development commences with the manufacture of a prototype that facilitates
market testing. Based upon the results of the tests, the business owner decides
on whether to undertake large-scale production or not.

Commercialisation
Favourable results in the development stage precede large-scale production and
commercialization. Here, the business launches its promotion campaign for the
new product. The market research conducted during the conception stage
influences the timing and location of the product launch.
Product
classifications
• The concept of “product classification”
consists of dividing products according
to specific characteristics so that they
form a structured portfolio.
• A basic product classification can be
made based on consumer and business
product. The consumer products are
afterwards divided based on preference
for shopping habits or durability
and tangibility. The business
products are the industrial goods
Shopping habits
Shopping habits, can be classified into convenience goods, shopping goods and
unsought goods.
• At the end of the month when you go to the supermarket to complete the necessary
shopping for the next month, you probably buy groceries, relish, etc. This kind of
product, which has become a habit and for which you don’t think too much before
buying are part of the convenience goods category.
Generally for convenience goods, once customers makes a choice for their preferred
brand, then stay loyal to that brand because it is convenient to keep repeating the choice
over time.
• The shopping goods are another category of products. Compared with the
convenience goods, the shopping goods are not so frequent. A relevant example can
be clothing, electronics, etc.. This category relies heavily on advertising and
trained sales people who can influence customer’s choices.
• For the unsought goods consumers don’t put much thought into purchasing them
and generally don’t have compelling impulse to buy them. An example in this
category would be life insurances
Durability and tangibility
Based on the second variable of durability and tangibility
there are non-durable and durable goods as well as services.
• The non-durable category consists of tangible goods that
are low priced and purchased frequently such as shampoos,
deodorants, etc. Compared with these ones, the durable
goods are also tangible goods but are targeted for many
uses. For this category, more personal selling is required as
well as guarantee to be provided, resulting in higher margin.
Relevant example can be the couches or chairs. Services are
those that are not tangible and are perishable in nature e.g
banking services.
 • The last category of products mentioned as the industrial goods
classification involves the materials ( raw materials such as
wood, cooper, aluminium) and parts (tiers, computer chips) ,
Industrial capital items such as installations and equipment (cranes,
bulldozers), accessory equipment ( hand tools, computers,
calculators), process materials (food preservatives),
products operating supplies ( papers, pencils, oil).
• Industrial products are those bought for further processing or
for use in conducting a business. Thus the distinction between
a consumer product and an industrial product is based on the
purpose for which the product is purchased. If a consumer
buys a lawn mower for home use, the lawn mower is a
consumer product. If the same consumer buys the same lawn
mower tor use in a landscaping business, the lawn mower is
an industrial product.
Product differentiation and
positivity
• Product differentiation is what makes your product or service stand out to your target
audience. It’s how you distinguish what you sell from what your competitors do, and
it increases brand loyalty, sales, and growth.
• What makes your product or service different and more appealing to customers than
other options in your category. Product differentiation is what gives you a
competitive advantage in your market. Product differentiators can include better
quality and service as well as unique features and benefits.
• Focusing on your customers is a good start to successful product differentiation.
What do they want? What is no one else providing them? What delights them? What
frustrates them? What makes them feel good? What would make them feel even
better? The answers to these questions can kickstart ideas for differentiation.
• Fortunately, differentiation can occur at any stage of your business—you don’t have
to start from scratch. What’s special about your product could be a new added
feature or capability. Or your product could offer fewer features than the products
already on the market, focusing instead on a simple, streamlined experience.
Importance of product differentiation

• The goal of product differentiation is to create a competitive advantage or to make your product superior to
alternatives on the market. In other words, you don’t just want to stand out from the competition, you want to stand
above it.
• It’s important to differentiate your product in any industry, but especially if you’re in a crowded market with lots of
competitors. The goal is to show potential customers what you can offer that other businesses can’t—and why that’s
valuable to them.
Kimberly Amadeo breaks down competitive advantage into 3 components: benefits, target audience, and competition.
Benefits
Benefits are the values a customer receives when they purchase your product or service. They’re different from features,
which are the things your product can do. Businesses often focus on features, but customers are interested in benefits.
Good product differentiation emphasizes the unique benefits of your goods or services. That’s why it’s essential to clearly
communicate why your product offers better quality, a lower price, or a more memorable experience than your
competition.
 Target audience
• Your product's differentiated benefits should align with the interests,
needs, and values of a defined target audience.
• To differentiate your product, first think about who wants to buy your
product, why they want it, how they want it to look, where they want
to purchase it, and how much they will pay for it. If you’re not sure
about any of those considerations, conducting marketing research is a
great way to find answers
Continuatio Competition
• You can only differentiate your own product once you know what's
n already on the market. Take plenty of time to study products and
services that potential customers might compare to yours.
• What does a competing product do? Who buys it? Why? Where?
How much do they pay for it? Keep an eye on branding, features, size,
price, and packaging to see what you can do differently to appeal to
your target audience.
• When you align a product’s benefits to what your target audience
wants more effectively than your competitors, you have a
differentiated product that provides value to customers.
Branding
• Consumers view a brand as an important part of a product, and branding can add value to a
product. For example, most consumers would perceive a bottle of Opium perfume as a high-
quality, expensive product. But the same perfume in an unmarked bottle would probably be
viewed as lower in quality, even if the fragrance were identical.
• Branding has become a central issue in product strategy. On the one hand, developing branded
product requires a great deal of long-term marketing investment, especially for advertising,
promotion and packaging. Manufacturers often find it easier and less expensive simply to make
the product and let others do the brand building.
• Powerful brand names have consumer franchise - that is, they command strong consumer loyalty.
This means that a sufficient number of customers demand these brands and refuse substitutes,
even if the substitutes are offered at somewhat lower prices. Companies that develop brands
with a strong consumer franchise are insulated from competitors' promotional strategies. Thus it
makes sense for a supplier to invest heavily to create strong national or even global recognition
and preference for its brand name.
 Brand: is a name, term, sign, symbol, or design, or a combination of
these, that identifies the maker or seller of a product or service.
Simply put, your brand is your promise to your customer. It tells them
what they can expect from your products and services, and it
differentiates your offering from that of your competitors. Your brand is
derived from who you are, who you want to be and who people
perceive you to be.

What is a
A brand conveys a specific set of features, benefits and services to
buyers. It is a mark, a tangible emblem, which says something about the
product. The best brands, for example, often convey a warranty of
brand? quality. A brand can deliver up to four levels of meaning;
1. Attributes. A brand first brings to mind certain product attributes.
For example, Mercedes suggests such attributes as 'well
engineered', 'well built', 'durable', 'high prestige', 'fast', 'expensive'
and 'high resale value'. The company may use one or more of these
attributes in its advertising for the car. For years, Mercedes
advertised 'Engineered like no other car in the world'. This
provided a positioning platform for other attributes of the car.
 2. Benefits. Customers do not buy attributes, they buy benefits. Therefore,
attributes must be translated into functional and emotional benefits. For
example, the attribute 'durable' could translate into the functional benefit,
'I won't have to buy a new car every few years.' The attribute 'expensive'
might translate into the emotional benefit, 'The car makes me feel
Continuation important and admired.' The attribute 'well built' might translate into the
functional and emotional benefit, T am safe in the event of an accident.’
3. Values. A brand also says something about the buyers' values. Thus
Mercedes buyers value high performance, safety and prestige. A brand
marketer must identify the specific groups of car buyers whose values
coincide with the delivered benefit package
4. Personality. A brand also projects a personality. Motivation researchers
sometimes ask, 'If this brand were a person, what kind of person would it
be?' Consumers might visualize a Mercedes automobile as being a
wealthy, middle-aged business executive. The brand will attract people
whose actual or desired self-images match the brand's image
 1. To brand or not to brand
The company must first decide whether it should put a brand name on
its product. Branding has become so strong that today hardly anything
goes unbranded. Salt is packaged in branded containers, common nuts
and bolts arc packaged with a distributor's label, and automotive parts -
spark plugs, tyres, filters - bear brand names that differ from those of

Major
the car makers. Some products, however, carry no brands. 'Generic'
products are unbranded, plainly packaged, less expensive versions of
common products ranging from such items as spaghetti to paper towels.
branding Branding helps buyers in many ways:

decisions
• Brand names tell the buyer something about product quality. Buyers
who always buy the same brand know that they will get the same
quality each time they buy.
• Brand names also increase the shopper's efficiency. Imagine a buyer
going into a supermarket and finding thousands of generic products.
• Brand names help call consumers' attention to new products that
might benefit them. The brand name becomes the basis upon which a
whole story can be built about the new product's special qualities.
Continuation

2. Brand name selection

Selecting the right name is a crucial part of the marketing process. The brand name should be carefully chosen. A good
name can add greatly to a product's success. Most large marketing companies have developed a formal, brand-name
selection process. Finding the best brand name is a difficult task. It begins with a careful review of the product and its
benefits, the target market and proposed marketing strategies.
Desirable qualities for a brand name include the following:
 It should suggest something about the product's benefits and qualities.
 It should be easy to pronounce, recognize and remember. Short names help
 The brand name should be distinctive.
 The name should translate easily (and meaningfully) into foreign languages.
 It should be capable of registration and legal protection, A brand name cannot be registered if it infringes on
existing brand names. Also, brand names that are merely descriptive or suggestive may be unprotectable.
 3. Brand sponsor
Sellers of children's products attach an almost endless list of character names to
clothing, toys, school supplies, linens, dolls, lunch boxes, cereals and other items. The
character names include such classics as Mickey and Minnie Mouse, Peanuts, Barbie,
the Flintstones, the Muppets, Garfield, Batman and the Simpsons. The newest form of
licensing is corporate licensing - renting a corporate trademark or logo made famous in
one category and using it in a related category. Some examples include Old Spice
shaving mugs and razors, Faberge costume jewellery, Porsche sunglasses and
accessories and Copper tone swim wear.
CO-BRANDING. Although companies have been co-branding products for many years,
Continuatio there has been a recent resurgence in co-branded products. Cobranding occurs when
two established brand names of different companies are used on the same product.

n
For example, Kellogg's joined forces with ConAgra to co-brand Kellogg's Healthy Choice
cereals. In most co-branding situations, one company licenses another company's well-
known brand to use in combination with its own
Co-branding offers many advantages. Because each brand dominates in & different
category, the combined brands create broader consumer appeal and greater brand
equity. Co-branding also allows companies to enter new markets with minimal risk or
investment.
Co-branding also has its limitations. Such relationships usually involve complex legal
contracts and licences. Co-branding partners must carefully co-ordinate their
advertising, sales promotion arid other marketing efforts. Finally, when cobranding,
each partner must trust that the other will take good care of its brand.
Continuation

5. Brand strategy
A company must define its overall branding strategy, which affects all of its products. This strategy will
also guide the branding of new products. A company has four choices when it comes to brand strategy.
It can introduce line extensions (existing brand names extended to new forms, sizes and flavours of an
existing product category), brand extensions (existing brand names extended to new product
categories), multibrands (new brand names introduces in the same product category) or new brands
(new brand names in new product categories.
6. Brand repositioning
However well a brand is initially positioned in a market, the company may have to reposition it later, A
competitor may launch a brand position next to the company's brand and cut into its market share. Or
customer wants may shift, leaving the company's brand with less demand. Marketers should consider
repositioning existing brands before introducing new ones. In this way, they can build on existing brand
recognition and consumer loyalty. Repositioning may require changing both the product and its image.
Packaging and labelling

• Packaging includes the activities of designing and producing the container or wrapper for a product. Packaging performs a vital function for
most products. It protects goods from being damaged before you buy them, helps keep, for example, foodstuffs hygienic and fresh, and is
often necessary for labelling and information reasons.
• Although the primary function of the package was to contain and protect the product, in recent times, many factors have made packaging
an important marketing tool. An increase in self-service means that packages must now perform many sales tasks - from attracting
attention, to describing the product, to making the sale. Companies are realizing the power of good packaging to create instant consumer
recognition of the company or brand.
• Innovative packaging can give a company an advantage over competitors, Perrier and Grolsch used creative packaging to differentiate the
product and have enjoyed good market results, Coca-Cola and Jack Daniels whisky bottles are so distinctive and have such strong identity
with their brands that the packaging d each product not only says it all, but also has become a classic.
• Developing a good package for a new product requires making many decisions. The first task is to establish the packaging concept. The
packaging concept states what the package should be or do for the product. Should the main functions of the package be to offer product
protection, introduce a new dispensing method, communicate certain qualities about the product, the brand or the company, or
something eise? Decisions, then, must be made on package design that cover specific elements of the package, such as size, shape,
materials, colour, text and brand mark. These various elements must work together to support the product's position and marketing
strategy. The package must he consistent with the product's advertising, pricing and distribution.
 • After selecting and introducing the package, the company should
check it regularly in the face of changing consumer preferences and
advances in technology. In the past, a package design might last for
15 years before it needed changes. However, in today's rapidly
changing environment, most companies must recheck their packaging
every two or three years.
• Labels may range from simple tags attached to products to complex
graphics that are part of the package. They perform several functions.
At the very least, the label identifies the product or brand, such as the
Continuatio name 'Sunkist' stamped on oranges. The label might also grade the
product, or describe several things about the product - who made it,
n where it was made, when it was made, its contents, how it is to be
used and how to use it safely. Finally, the label might promote the
product through attractive graphics.
• There has been a long history of legal concerns about labels. Labels
can mislead customers, fail to describe important ingredients or fail to
include needed safety warnings. As a result, many countries have
laws to regulate labelling. Sellers must ensure that their labels contain
all the required information and comply with national or international
(e.g. USA, EU) requirements.
END OF
LECTURE
17/09/2020
MRS ABBY N. MUMBA