INFANCY –I

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 INTRODUCTION

• Infancy, among humans,

the period of life between birth and
the acquisition of language
approximately one to two years later.
PHYSICAL GROWTH IN INFANCY
The first year of infant is characterized by rapid physical growth. A normal baby
doubles its birth weight in six months and triples it in a year. During that time, there
is great expansion of the head and chest, thus permitting development of the brain,
heart, and lungs, the organs most vital to survival. The bones, which are relatively soft
at birth, begin to harden, and the fontanel's, the soft parts of the newborn skull,
begin to calcify, the small one at the back of the head at about 3 months, the larger
one in front at varying ages up to 18 months. Brain weight also increases rapidly
during infancy: by the end of the second year, the brain has already reached 75%
of its adult weight.
EARLY REFLEXES

• Primitive reflexes are reflex actions originating in the central nervous system that are
exhibited by normal infants, but not neurologically intact adults, in response to particular
stimuli. These reflexes are absent due to the development of the frontal lobes as a child
transitions normally into child development. These primitive reflexes are also called infantile,
infant or newborn reflexes.
ADAPTIVE VALUE OF REFLEXES

• Reflexes vary in utility. Some reflexes hold a survival value (e.g., the rooting
reflex, which helps a breastfed infant find the mother's nipple). Babies display
the rooting reflex only when they are hungry and touched by another person,
not when they touch themselves. There are a few reflexes that likely assisted in
the survival of babies during human evolutionary past (e.g., the Moro reflex).
Other reflexes such as sucking and grabbing help establish gratifying
interaction between parents and infants. They can encourage a parent to
respond with love and affection, and to feed their child more competently. In
addition, it helps parents to comfort their infant while allowing the baby to
control distress and the amount of stimulation they receive.
MORO REFLEX
• The Moro reflex in a four-day-old infant: 1) the reflex is initiated by pulling the infant up from the
floor and then releasing him ; 2) he spreads his arms 3) he pulls his arms in ; 4) he cries (10 seconds)
• This is sometimes referred to as the startle reaction, startle response, startle reflex or embrace reflex.
It is more commonly known as the Moro response or Moro reflex after its discoverer, paediatrician
Ernst Moro. The Moro reflex is present at birth, peaks in the first month of life, and begins to
disappear around 2 months of age. It is likely to occur if the infant's head suddenly shifts position,
the temperature changes abruptly, or they are startled by a sudden noise. The legs and head extend
while the arms jerk up and out with the palms up and thumbs flexed. Shortly afterward the arms are
brought together and the hands clench into fists, and the infant cries loudly. The reflex normally
disappears by three to four months of age, though it may last up to six months.[ Bilateral absence of
the reflex may be linked to damage to the infant's central nervous system, while a unilateral absence
could mean an injury due to birth trauma (e.g., a fractured clavicle or injury to the brachial plexus).
Erb's palsy or some other form of paralysis is also sometimes present in such cases. In human
evolutionary history, the Moro reflex may have helped infants cling to the mother while being
carried around. If the infant lost its balance, the reflex caused the infant to embrace its mother and
regain its hold on the mother's body.
BABINSKI REFLEX

• Babinski reflex is one of the normal reflexes in infants. Reflexes are

responses that occur when the body receives a certain stimulus.
• The Babinski reflex occurs after the sole of the foot has been firmly
stroked. The big toe then moves upward or toward the top surface of
the foot. The other toes fan out.
• This reflex is normal in children up to 2 years old. It disappears as
the child gets older. It may disappear as early as 12 months.
TONIC NECK REFLEX

• The tonic neck reflex, also known as asymmetric tonic neck reflex or 'fencing
posture' is present at one month of age and disappears at around four months.
When the child's head is turned to the side, the arm on that side will straighten and
the opposite arm will bend (sometimes the motion will be very subtle or slight). If
the infant is unable to move out of this position or the reflex continues to be
triggered past six months of age, the child may have a disorder of the upper motor
neurons. According to researchers, the tonic neck reflex is a precursor to the
hand/eye coordination of the infant. It also prepares the infant for voluntary
reaching.
ROOTING REFLEX
The rooting reflex is present at birth(age of appearance 28weeks) and disappears
around four months of age, as it gradually comes under voluntary control. The
rooting reflex assists in the act of breastfeeding. A newborn infant will turn its
head toward anything that strokes its cheek or mouth, searching for the object by
moving its head in steadily decreasing arcs until the object is found. After
becoming used to responding in this way (if breastfed, approximately three
weeks after birth), the infant will move directly to the object without searching.
The sucking reflex is common to all mammals and is present at birth. It is linked
with the rooting reflex and breastfeeding. It causes the child to instinctively suck
anything that touches the roof of their mouth, and simulates the way a child
naturally eats.
WALKING /STEPPING REFLEX

• The walking or stepping reflex is present at birth, though infants this

young cannot support their own weight. When the soles of their feet
touch a flat surface they will attempt to walk by placing one foot in
front of the other. This reflex disappears at six weeks due to an
increased ratio of leg weight to strength. It reappears as a voluntary
behaviour around eight months to one year old.
SWIMMING REFLEX

• The swimming reflex involves placing an infant face down in a pool of water.
The infant will begin to paddle and kick in a swimming motion. The reflex
disappears between 4–6 months. Despite the infant displaying a normal
response by paddling and kicking, placing them in water can be a very risky
procedure. Infants can swallow a large amount of water while performing this
task, therefore caregivers should proceed with caution. It is advisable to
postpone swimming lessons for infants until they are at least three months old,
because infants submerged in water can die from water intoxication.
EARLY SENSORY CAPACITIES

• Throughout much of history, the newborn was considered a passive,

disorganized being who possessed minimal abilities. William James,
an early psychologist, had described the newborn’s world as “a
blooming, buzzing confusion,” (Shaffer, 1985). However, current
research techniques have demonstrated just how developed the
newborn is with especially organized sensory and perceptual
abilities.
VISION:

• Over the first few months, babies may have uncoordinated eye movements.
They may even appear cross-eyed. Babies are born with the ability to focus
only at close range. This is about 8 to 10 inches, or the distance between a
mother's face to the baby in her arms. Babies are able to follow or track an
object in the first few weeks of life. Focus improves over the first 2 to 3 years
of life to a normal 20/20 vision. Newborns can detect light and dark but can't
see all colors. This is why many baby books and infant toys have distinct black
and white patterns
HEARING

• During pregnancy, many mothers find that the baby may kick or jump in response to loud
noises and may quiet with soft, soothing music. Hearing is fully developed in newborns.
Babies with normal hearing should startle in response to loud sounds. These babies will
also pay quiet attention to the mother's or father's voice. And they will briefly stop moving
when sound at a conversational level is begun. Newborns seem to prefer a higher-pitched voice
(the mother's) to a low sounding voice (males). They can also tune out loud noises after hearing
them several times.
SMELL AND TASTE

• Studies of taste and smell demonstrate that babies respond with different facial
expressions, suggesting that certain preferences are innate. Newborns can
distinguish between sour, bitter, sweet, and salty flavors and show a preference
for sweet flavors. Newborns also prefer the smell of their mothers. An infant
only 6 days old is significantly more likely to turn toward its own mother’s
breast pad than to the breast pad of another baby’s mother (Porter, Makin, Davis,
& Christensen, 1992), and within hours of birth an infant also shows a preference
for the face of its own mother (Bushnell, 2001; Bushnell, Sai, & Mullin, 1989).
TOUCH

• Immediately after birth, a newborn is sensitive to touch and

temperature, and is also highly sensitive to pain, responding with
crying and cardiovascular responses (Balaban & Reisenauer, 2013).
Newborns who were operated without anesthesia experience pain as
demonstrated by increased blood pressure, increased heart rate,
decreased oxygen in the blood, and a surge of stress hormones
(United States National Library of Medicine, 2016).
SUMMARY
TO BE CONTINUED…..