Transmission Line Guide

Transmission Line
11/02/2020
Transmission Line
• A transmission line is a pair of electrical
conductors carrying an electrical signal from
Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

one place to another.
• E.g. Coaxial cable and twisted pair cable
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Types of transmission line
• 1. Balanced Two wire
• 2. Co-axial cable
• 3. Waveguide

• 4. microstrip line
• 5. Fiber optic
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Balanced Two Wire Tx Line
• In this two open wires are used to send the
signal from one place to other.
• The one wire is called phase and other neutral

• The spacing between the two wires is kept
same using spacers at equal intervals in order
to avoid short circuit.
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Advantage & Disadvantage of Balanced Two
Wire Tx Line
• Very cheap
• Design is easy
• High power handling

• External interference
• Noisy signal at receiver
• At high frequency skin effect is present
restricting use of material
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Coaxial Cable
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• Consists of several layers
• The inner most layer is conducting and carries
information

• Next layer is insulating material which should be lossless
• Insulator material is covered by mesh of thin conducting
wires.
• To safeguard the mesh we keep outermost insulator.
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Advantage & Disadvantage of Coaxial Cable
• Minimised external interference due to insulation

provided to main conductor.
• Can be used at high frequency as well
• Comparatively requires less space

• Easily bent
• Long lasting due to insulated system
• Costlier w.r.t. two wire systems
• Difficult design
• Handles relatively low power 7
Microstrip Lines
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• It is simple conducting track on one side of a
dielectric material while other side is plane
copper ground.

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Advantage & Disadvantage of Microstrip Line
• Can operate at very high frequency

• Small size light weight minimum losses
• Can be made using fabrication technology

hence very accurate
• Cost is low
• Not preferred for long distance
communication
• Not for high power Tx
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Wave Guide
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• It is hollow metallic enclosure.
• The wave travels through reflection from inner surface
of waveguide
• Total internal reflection take place from surface as skin
depth is approx. zero

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Advantage & Disadvantage of Waveguide
• High power handling capacity

• Performance improves as frequency increases
• No external interference

• High cost
• Heavy system
• Difficult mounting
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Optical Fiber
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• Guiding of light by refraction
• Optical fiber is used as a medium for
telecommunication and computer networking
• Flexible
• Can be used for long distance communication
• Extremely high bandwidth

• Very less interference from external environment
• No need of electrical insulator
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1. Core: 8 µm diameter 2. Cladding: 125 µm dia.
3. Buffer: 250 µm dia. 4. Jacket: 400 µm dia.
Analysis of Transmission Line
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• Let at distance z, voltage is v(z), current is i(z) and
at distance (z+Δz) voltage is v(z+Δz), current is 13
i(z+Δz)
Equivalent Circuit of Tx Line
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• The transmission line is a distributed system which
can be represented using lumped element for
analysis purpose.
• Infinitesimal section of transmission line Δz ca be
represented as L section as shown in figure.
• Here R, L, G and C are resistance, inductance,

conductance and capacitance per unit length of
transmission line.
• R represents series resistance, L series inductance
G conductance between two wires, and C
Is capacitance between two wires.
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analysis

 Let at distance z, voltage is v(z), current is i(z) and at distance v(z+Δz)
voltage is v(z+Δz), current is i(z+Δz)
 Hence v(z+Δz)=v(z)+{∂v(z)/ ∂z} Δz
 Similarly for current i(z+Δz)=i(z)+{∂i(z)/ ∂z} Δz
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Applying KVL in the center loop---

v(z)=i(z).R Δz+L Δz{∂i(z)/ ∂t}+v(z+ Δz)
Rearranging the whole equation and dividing by Δz 
-{v(z+ Δz)- v(z)}/ Δz=Ri(z)+L ∂i(z)/ ∂t
Or, ignoring the variable z:
-∂v/ ∂z=Ri+L{∂i/ ∂t}-------------------------------------(1) 16
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• Applying KCL at Node B---

• i(z)=iG+iC+i(z+ Δz)
• i(z)=v(z+ Δz)GΔz + CΔz {∂v(z+ Δz)/ ∂t}+i(z+ Δz)

• Rearranging the whole equation and dividing by Δz 
• -{i(z+ Δz)- i(z)}/ Δz=Gv(z)+C ∂v(z)/ ∂t; putting Δz=0

• Or, ignoring the variable z:
• -∂i/ ∂z=Gv+C ∂v/ ∂t--------------------------------------(2) 17
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• Differentiating (1) w.r.t. z and (2) w.r.t. t and combining
• ∂2v/ ∂z2=RGv + (RC+LG) ∂v/ ∂t + LC ∂2v/ ∂t2--------(3)
• This is known as Generalised Transmission Line equation in
voltage form

• Similarly Differentiating (1) w.r.t. t and (2) w.r.t. z and
combining
• ∂2i/ ∂z2=RGi + (RC+LG) ∂i/ ∂t + LC ∂2i/ ∂t2-------------(4)
• This is known as Generalised Transmission Line equation in
current form
• By solving these equation we can find the behaviour of line
• Here V and I both are function of time and distance (z,t)
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+ incident( travelling in +z direction)
- reflected ( travelling I -z direction)

As we know differentiating w.r.t. time is equivalent to multiplying by jω
Hence Tx line equations(1,2,3 &4) may be written as
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• Where

For a loss less Tx line
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Solution to Tx line equation
• The Tx ine equations

• The solution is
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• βz is electrical length of Tx line

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• Similarly for second equation

• Where characteristic impedance of line is
defined as
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Voltage Wave and Current wave on Tx Line

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At microwave frequency, we assume that
R<< wL and G<<wC
Hence propagation constant can be expanded using

binomial expansion

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Hence Attenuation and phase constant may be give as
Similarly the Characteristic Impedance

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The phase velocity vp can be calculated as

Here L and C are dependant on length and separation of the conductors
Which depend on μ and ε of the insulating material.
For air insulator…
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Reflection and Transmission Coefficients of Tx
• For each voltage and current waves, there are two

components– incident (travelling in +z direction)
and reflected (travelling in –z direction).
• If load is equal to characteristic impedance

there would not be any reflections.
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Voltage and current signals at any point may be given as
sum of incident signal and reflected signal
Or, current in terms of voltage

Where Z0 is characteristic impedance, defined as ratio of incident voltage to
incident current or reflected voltage and reflected current. The voltage at l
distance away from source i.e. at load is given as
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Hence load impedance is given as 
Now, as per the definition of reflection coefficient, we can

write

Hence
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Reflection coefficient
• If Zl and Z0 are complex quantities Γl is also
complex
• Hence Γl =| Γl|e(jθl)

• Moreover, the | Γl |<=1 it varies between -1
and +1. here θl is angle between incident and
reflected waves.
• Generalised reflection coefficient may be
given as 30
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Looking at line from load side
We can find the line impedance while looking
back from load. If l is total length of line then
he reflection coefficient at d distance away
rom load can be calculated by putting z=l-d

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• The reflection coefficient in terms of load
reflection coefficient is given as

For a lossy transmission line, the above equation shows a spiral
trace which moves inward.
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Complex Reflection coefficient plane
d variable
x-axis real part of ref coefficient, y-axis imaginary
part.

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34

For loss less line
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Transmission Coefficient
• As we know
• T=Vtr/Vinc=Itr/Iinc

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Voltage and current signals at any point may be given as
sum of incident signal and reflected signal
• These waves will travel further (in +z

direction) and may be termed as transmitted
wave. The Transmitted wave at load may be
given as
Hence reflection coefficient at load is

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And the transmission coefficient may be given as 
T=Vtre(-γl) /V+e(-γl)
=Vtr/V+
Hence from previeous slide

V+e(-γl)+V-e(γl)=Vtre(-γl)
Dividing both sides by V+e(-γl) we get
1+V-e(γl)/V+ e(-γl)=Vtr/V+
Hence—
1+Γ=T
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• Power transmitted to load
• Ptr=(Vtre(-αl))2/2Zl
• =Pinc-Pref
• Or, (Vtre(-αl))2/2Zl =(V+e(- α l))2/2Z0-(V-e(- α l))2/2Z0

• Dividing both side by V+e(- α l) using the definition of
Γand T we get
• T2=Zl/Z0(1- Γl2)
• Hence
• T=2Zl/(Zl+Z0)
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Standing wave and SWR
The total voltage on any point of tx line at distance z may be given
as

Hence comparing LHS and RHS we get amplitude as 
And phase
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• The maximum value of V0 happens at βz=±nπ which may
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be determined by differentiating the V 0 w.r.t. βz and
equating it to 0.
• The minimum value of V0 happens at βz=±(2n-1)π/2 which

may be determined by differentiating the V0 w.r.t. βz and

equating it to 0.
• The distance between two successive maxima or minima is

given as
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• That is half wavelength.

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Standing wave in lossy line
Note: At maximum voltage, current is
minimum and vice versa.

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Standing wave in lossless line

Perfect standing wave in lossy line
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Line impedance (from receiving end)
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• It defined as ratio of total voltage
(incident +reflected=transmitted) and
total current at the given point.

• Characteristic impedance is defined as
ratio of incident /reflected/transmitted
voltage to respective current. This is
independent of position.
• Hence line impedance at z distance away
from source 43
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44

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• Se know the total voltage and current on line is
given as
• At load (z=l):

• Hence:
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• Hence replacing V+ and V- from 1st and 2nd
equations and putting z=l-d

• Hence line impedance at d distance away
from load Zl is Z=V(d)/I(d)
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• The line impedance may given in terms of
hyperbolic function. As we know

• Hence the line impedance from load
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• For loss less line Z0=R0 and
• Hence:

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Line impedance for Short circuited line
 For Zl=0 and lossless line
• For Zl=0.
 Z=Zsc=jZ0tan(βd)
• Z=Zsc=Z0tanh(γ
voltage
d) current

impedance
•For 1st quarter wavelength the
line impedance is inductive
•For 2nd quarter it is capacitive
•And so on….. 49
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LINE IMPEDANCE FOR SHORT CIRCUITED LINE
 For Zl=infinite and lossless line
 For Zl=infinite.
 Z=Zoc=-jZ0cot(βl)
 Z=Zoc=jZ0coth(γl)

•For 1st quarter wavelength the
line impedance is capacitive
•For 2nd quarter it is inductive
•And so on….. 50
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• The characteristic impedance may given in
terms of short circuited and open ended line
impedances as Z0=√(Zsc.Zoc)

The line impedance at d distance from load is given as
51
Hence input impedance may be calculated as line impedance at l distance
from the load
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• 2.25 λ is equivalent to λ/4 line.
• Hence β.d=(2π/ λ).(λ/4)= π/2.
• Hence Zin=Z0{Zl/tan(β.d)+jZ0}/{Z0/tan(β.d)+jZl}
• =Z02/Zl
» =50*50/75
» =33.33 ohms

• Reflection coefficient=(75-50/75+50)=0.2
• Hence load voltage
• V(l)=V+e(-γl)+V-e(γl)=V+e(-γl) (1+Γ)
• |V(l)|=|V+|(1+ Γ)=30*1.2=36V
• Instantaneous power delivered to load=|Vl|2/Zl
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• =362/75=17.28W
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Smith Chart: Properties
• Impedances, voltages, currents, etc. all repeat every
half wavelength
• The magnitude of the reflection coefficient, the
standing wave ratio (SWR) do not change, so they

characterize the voltage & current patterns on the
line
• If the load impedance is normalized by the
characteristic impedance of the line, the voltages,
currents, impedances, etc. all still have the same
properties, but the results can be generalized to any
line with the same normalized impedances 53
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Smith Chart
• The Smith Chart is a clever tool for analyzing
transmission lines
• The outside of the chart shows location on the

line in wavelengths
• The combination of intersecting circles inside
the chart allow us to locate the normalized
impedance and then to find the impedance
anywhere on the line
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Constant r circle (resistance/conductance)

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56

Constant x circle (reactance)
Imaginary
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Real Impedance Impedance Axis
Axis Smith
Chart

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• Upper half denotes +jx lower denotes –jx. Real
part is always +ve.
• For admittance calculations the constant r circle
becomes constant conductance g circle and
constant reactance circle becomes constant
susceptance b circle.

• The distance around Smith chart is half
wavelength.
• At point zmin=1/ρ we find Vmin and at Zmax= ρ we
find Vmax.
• To the right of center, there is Vmax, Imin, ρ, Zmax.
• The distance is given in wavelengths towards load 58
or generator.
Example:
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• Find first minima & maxima voltage positions from load if
normalized load is 1+j1; wavelength is 5cm. Also find VSWR.
• Solution:
• 1. marked zl=1+j1 on chart.
• Joined center of chart (ρ=1) to this point and extended upto
outer radius, read 0.162λ.

• Since we are at load position so moved towards generator in
order to find Maxima which lies on right part of horizontal
axis, read 0.25 λ.
• Now computed the distance covered=(0.25-0.162) λ
=0.44cm
• Now since minima lies on left real axis, moved further
towards generator, read 0.5 λ. So the distance of minima
from load is 0.5λ-0.162λ=1.69cm. 59
Smith Chart
• Impedance divided by line impedance (50
Ohms)
– Z1 = 100 + j50
– Z2 = 75 -j100
– Z3 = j200
– Z4 = 150
– Z5 = infinity (an open circuit)
– Z6 = 0 (a short circuit)
– Z7 = 50
– Z8 = 184 -j900
• Then, normalize and plot. The points are plotted

as follows:
– z1 = 2 + j
– z2 = 1.5 -j2
– z3 = j4
– z4 = 3
– z5 = infinity
– z6 = 0
– z7 = 1
– z8 = 3.68 -j18S
11/02/2020 Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey 60

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Unknown Impedance using smith chart

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Smith Chart
• Draw a constant SWR circle is drawn.(circle with center 1+j0
and radius from 1 to ρ)
• From short circuit (extreme left position)
move the given distance in the opposite of
given direction(here, 0.15λ towards
Generator)
• Note the value of intersection of these two. It is normalized
impedance.
• Multiply it by Z0 to get ZL. 62

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Impedance Matching
• Required for maximum power transfer from source to load

• Load and source impednace should be complex conjugate
• In tx line matching means terminating the line by char.
Impedance since in lossless lines imaginary part of char.
Impedance is zero.

• Γ=0  for ZL=Z0.
• Z0 is resistive for a lossless line
• Matching is achieved on load side then on source side
• Chances of load variation is more hence frequently used for
load.
• At Audio frequency iron-cored transformer is used for 63
matching
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64

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Single stub matching
• Lumped capacitor and inductors may used for impedance
matching.
• Susceptive property of short circuited and open circuited
line is used for matching.

• Short circuited stubs are preferred due to easy
implementation of short circuit.
• These stubs are placed at proper location to achieve
matching.
• Tx line need to cut and joined.
• If load changes relocate & resize the stub not feasible.
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S.C or O.C
ys Stub
Z0s l
Tx Line
Gen. Zg
~ d
Z0
ZL
y11 yd

•The char. Impedance of stub and main Tx line may be different or same.
•Let matching is achieved at d distance away from load.
•Y11 is admittance at match point.
•Yd is admittance without stub at match point
•Ys is admittance of stub.
•Then Y11=Ys+Yd
•Under matched condition Y11 =Yo
•Hence normalised impedances y11, yd and ys are related as 66
•Y11=1=yd+ys; 1=yd/Y0+ys/Y0s
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67

Example 1
Double stub matching
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• Some times desired location is not accessible
• Double stub is short circuited pair of stubs having fixed separation (λ/8 or
3λ/8 or 5λ/8) .
• These are connected in parallel to main Tx line

68
• Locate normalized admittance on chart
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• Make constant SWR circle passing through this point)
• Get load admittance yd1 at d1 distance away from load by
traversing along constant SWR circle.
• Obtain Spacing circle by rotating Unity (r=1) circle by distance
3λ/8 (separation b/w stubs).
• Now move yd1 along its constant g circle till it cuts Spacing circle
to get y11 (two solutions). Since stub does not alter real part.

• Now map y11 from spacing circle to unity circle which is 3λ/8
(separation b/w stubs) distance away (yd2). (make new constant
SWR circle passing through y11 and move 3λ/8 along it). It must
be on unity circle.
• Add 2nd stub to nullify the imaginary part. (locate imaginary part
on Smith chart and get distance from z=0 point; extreme left)
• Calculate 2nd stub length. 69
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70

Example:
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Mark yl and draw constant SWR circle passing through it.
Move 0.4λ along this circle to get yd1.(as given)
yd1 =0.55-j1.08
Rotate g=1 circle by an angle 2βd=2(2π/λ)(3 λ/8)=3π/2 counter

clockwise.
Move yd1 along its constant g circle to get y11 and y11’.(two
solutions, take any one).
y11 =0.55-j0.11 & y11’=0.55-j1.88
Since y11=yd1+ys1 Then ys1=+j0.97 (capacitive stub)
Similarly ys1‘=-j0.08 (inductive stub)
The length of 1st stub l1=(0.25+0.12)λ=0.37λ. 71
(Alternatively, we can get normalised impedance zs1=-j1.03

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• Make constant SWR circle passing through y11.
• Move y11 towards generator by distance 3λ/8,
to get yd2=1-j0.61(this point must be on

spacing circle).
• To match this y22=yd2+ys2=1
• Hence ys2=1-yd2=1-(1-j0.61)=0.61j.
• Hence stub should be capacitive with 1/ys2=-
j1.64 72
• Locate –j1.64 on chart0.338λ from Short

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73

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Transmission Line

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• Minimised external interference due to insulation

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• Can operate at very high frequency

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• High power handling capacity

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

 Similarly for current i(z+Δz)=i(z)+{∂i(z)/ ∂z} Δz

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• i(z)=v(z+ Δz)GΔz + CΔz {∂v(z+ Δz)/ ∂t}+i(z+ Δz)

• -{i(z+ Δz)- i(z)}/ Δz=Gv(z)+C ∂v(z)/ ∂t; putting Δz=0

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• βz is electrical length of Tx line

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Hence propagation constant can be expanded using

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Similarly the Characteristic Impedance

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• For each voltage and current waves, there are two

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Or, current in terms of voltage

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Now, as per the definition of reflection coefficient, we can

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• These waves will travel further (in +z

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Hence reflection coefficient at load is

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• The minimum value of V0 happens at βz=±(2n-1)π/2 which

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

• The distance between two successive maxima or minima is

• That is half wavelength.

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey

Dr. Ganga Prasad Pandey