CHAPTER 13: STATISTICAL

QUALITY CONTROL
LO13–01: Illustrate process variation and explain how to
measure it.
LO13–02: Analyze process quality using statistics.
LO13–03: Analyze the quality of batches of items using
statistics.

McGraw-Hill/Irwin
Statistical Quality Control
• The quantitative aspects of quality management
• Statistical quality control (SQC) is a number of different
techniques designed to evaluate quality from a
conformance view
• Processes usually exhibit some variation in their output
• Assignable variation: variation that is caused by factors
that can be clearly identified and possibly even managed
• Common variation: variation that is inherent in the
process itself
• Also know as random variation

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Measuring Variation
•  Mean (): the average value of a set of numbers

• xi = Observed value
• n = Total number of observed values
• Standard deviation (σ): a measure of the variation in a
set of numbers

• Also called sigma

• Sigma is calculated in a few different ways, depending on the
underlying theoretical distribution

13-3
Understanding and Measuring Process Variation
• When variation is reduced, quality is improved
• It is impossible to have zero variation
• Typical specification statement is 10.00 inches ± 0.02 inch
• Upper specification: the maximum acceptable value for
a characteristic
• Lower specification: the minimum acceptable value for a
characteristic

13-4
 Genichi Taguchi
• From the customer’s view, there is often practically no
difference between a product just inside specifications
and a product just outside
• As customers get more demanding, there is pressure to
reduce variability

Exhibit 13.1 and 13.2 13-5

Measuring Process Capability
• Capable: the mean and standard deviation of the process
are operating such that the upper and lower control limits
are acceptable relative to the upper and lower
specification limits
• Specification limits: range of variation that is considered
acceptable by the designer or customer
• Process limits: range of variation that a process is able
to maintain with a high degree of certainty

13-6
 Process Control Limits Exceed Specification Limits
(Not Capable)

Exhibit 13.3 13-7

 Specification Control Limits Exceed Process Limits
(Process Capable)

Exhibit 13.3 13-8

Process Capability Index (Cpk)
•  Ratio of the range of values produced divided by the
range of values allowed

• Shows how well the parts being produced fit into the
range specified by the design specifications
• Cpk larger than one indicates process is capable
• When the two numbers are not close, indicates mean has
shifted

13-9
 Process Capability with a Shift in the Process Mean

Exhibit 13.4 13-10

Example 13.1
• Assessing the capability of a process that puts
pressurized grease in an aerosol can
• Design specifications call for an average of 60 psi ± 5
• An upper specification limit of 65 psi and a lower specification limit
of 55 psi
• A sample average 61 psi with a standard deviation of 2 psi
• What is the capability of the process?
• What is the probability of producing a defect?

13-11
Example 13.1 Solution
• Step
  1: Interpret data
• LSL = 55, USL = 65, , σ = 2

• Step 2: Calculate Cpk

• This is not a very good capability index

• Step 3: Calculate probability of a defect

• NORMSDIST(-3) = 0.001349898, 1-NORMSDIST(2) = 0.0227501

• P(less than 55 or more than 65) = 0.001349898 + 0.0227501  0.024
• Approximately 2.4 percent will be defective
13-12
Quick Reference for Fraction of Defective
Units for Various Design Specification Limits

13-13
Process Control Procedures
• Concerned with monitoring quality while the product or
service is being produced
• Statistical process control: testing a sample of output to
determine if the process is producing items within a
preselected range
• Attributes: quality characteristics that are classified as
either conforming or not conforming-Good or bad-use p
chart
• Variable: characteristics that are measured using an
actual value- number of defects per piece-use c chart

13-14
 Process Control Charts – Interpretation

Exhibit 13-5 13-15

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Process Control with Attribute Measurements: Using
p-Charts
•  Used when an item (or service) is either good or bad (a
yes-no decision)

• or zero if equation evaluates to less than 0

• Typically use z = 3

13-17
Creating p-Charts
Calculate the sample proportions p for each sample

Calculate the average of the sample proportions

Calculate the standard deviation of the sample proportion

Calculate the control limits

Plot the individual sample proportions, the average of the

proportions, and the control limits

13-18
Process Control with Attribute Measurements: Using
c-Charts
•  Used when an item (or service) may have multiple defects
• Knotholes on lumber
• Underlying distribution is Poisson

• Lor zero if equation evaluates to less than 0

• Typically use z = 3

13-19
Variable Measurement Process Control Charts: -
 and R-Charts
Size of • Preferable to keep small (usually 4 or 5 units)
samples
Number of • Once chart set up, each sample compared to
chart
samples • Use about 25 samples to set up chart

Frequency • Trade-off between cost of sampling and benefit

of samples of adjusting the system

Control • Generally use z = 3

limits
13-20
Acceptance Sampling
• Performed on goods that already exist to determine what
percentage of the products conform to specifications
• Purpose is to…
• Determine quality level
• Ensure quality is within predetermined level
• Executed through a sampling plan
• Results include accept, reject, or retest

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Acceptance Sampling
Disadvantages Advantages

• Risks of accepting “bad” • Economy

lots and rejecting “good” • Less handling damage
lots • Fewer inspectors
• Added planning and • Upgrading of the
documentation inspection job
• Sample provides less • Applicability to destructive
information than 100 testing
percent inspection • Entire lot rejection
(motivation for
improvement)
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Acceptance Sampling – Designing a Sampling Plan
• Determine (1) how many units, n, to sample from a lot,
and (2) the maximum number of defective items, c, that
can be found in the sample before the lot is rejected
• Acceptable quality level (AQL)
• Maximum acceptable percentage of defectives defined by producer
• Lot tolerance percent defective (LTPD)
• Percentage of defectives that defines consumer’s rejection point
•  (producer’s risk)
• The probability of rejecting a good lot
•  (consumer’s risk)
• The probability of accepting a bad lot

13-23
Summary
• Variation
  is inherent in all processes
• Variation caused by identifiable factors is called assignable variation
• Variation inherent in a process is called common or random variation
• SQC involves sampling output and using statistics to find
when the process has changed in a nonrandom way
• The capability index of a process measures its ability to
consistently produce within the specification limits
• Control charts are used to visually monitor the status of a
process over time
• Attributes use p-chart and c-chart, variables use -char and R-
chart
• Acceptance sampling is used to evaluate if a batch of parts
conforms to specification limits
13-24