What Are Vitamins?

• Tasteless organic compounds

• Required in small amounts
• Functions:
 Regulate Metabolism
 Help convert the 3 Organic Energy Yielding
Nutrients into ATP
 Promote Growth and Reproduction

Deficiencies can result in serious illnesses.

 Vitamins Discovered about 100 Years Ago

1747 - British Navy Dr. James Lind gave sailor limes to

combat scurvy – Vitamin C deficiency.
(*Vit C not discovered until 1930’s)

1897 - Dutchman Christiaan Eijkman observed chickens &

people eating white rice developed Beriberi, causing heart
problems & paralysis. When chickens fed unprocessed
brown rice (outer Bran intact), no disease developed:
Brown rice cured his patients too.

Connected Food to Curing Disease.

Note: Outer rice bran contains vitamin B1, (Thiamin).

 History of Vitamins

1912 - E.V. McCollum, discovered first fat soluble

vitamin, Vitamin A; found rats fed butter were healthier
than those fed lard (more Vitamin A in butter).

1912 - Dr. Casmir Funk coined term ‘vitamins’ as vital

factors in diet (from vital and amine). Found these
unidentified substances in food could prevent diseases
of scurvy, beriberi and pellagra (from deficiency of
niacin, vitamin B3).

1940’s - Water soluble B and C vitamins were identified.

1968 - Linus Pauling, created the
term Orthomolecular Nutrition,
"pertaining to the right molecule".
Connecting optimum nutrition to
better health.

1970's-1980's – Further studies by

Pauling et al. suggested very large
doses of intravenous vitamin C
could help increase survival time
and improve the quality of life of
terminal cancer patients.
 Naming Vitamins
• Each new vitamin given a temporary name when
discovered.
• Names of vitamins follow alphabet, starting with A;
A, B, C, D, E, and K… where we currently are
• Vitamins F, G, and H were dropped.
• Nomenclature changed when vitamin B was found
to have several functions.
• Subscripts added for each new isolated role.
The Criteria for Designating Vitamins:

1. Cannot be synthesized in ample amounts in body

2. Chronic deficiency cause physical symptoms.

3. Symptoms disappear once vitamin level restored.

4. Deficiency can cause permanent damage.

13 compounds meet the above criteria!

Classifying Vitamins:
Vitamins are classified based on solubility.

• Nine (9) Water-Soluble:

• B vitamin complex
• Vitamin C

• Four (4) Fat-Soluble:

• Vitamin A
• Vitamin D
• Vitamin E
• Vitamin K
Solubility Influences a Vitamin’s…
• Digestion
• Absorption
• Transportation
• Storage
• Excretion

Compare Water Soluble and Fat Soluble Vitamins

 Vitamins Are Organic
Vitamins:
• All contain C, H and O.

• Can also contain some N and S.

• Each have a unique Chemical structure.

• Are each a singular unit.

• Are absorbed intact.

• Perform numerous essential functions,

some with more than one role in metabolism.
The many roles of Vitamins in maintaining Health
Pro-Vitamins Converted to Active Vitamins
• Provitamins - substances in foods that are not
directly usable by the body.
• Converted to an active form once absorbed

• Example: beta-carotene  vitamin A

• Preformed Vitamins
• Vitamins in foods in their active form.
• Do not need to be converted.
 Vitamins Differ in Absorption and Storage

• All absorption takes place in the small intestine.

• Fat-soluble and water-soluble vitamins differ in:
• Absorption
• Bioavailability

Absorption – passage of the nutrient after digested into the

blood and lymph and body cells.

Bioavailability - proportion of the nutrient that is digested,

absorbed and metabolized through normal pathways.
 Vitamins Differ in Bioavailability
• Bioavailability of Vitamins Varies:
• Amount in specific food
• Preparation (raw, fermented, cooked)
• Efficiency of Digestion and Absorption of food
• Individual Nutritional Status
• Natural or Synthetic in Form!

• Fat-soluble vitamins are generally less bioavailable

than water-soluble vitamins.
• Vitamins from plant foods are generally less
bioavailable than those in animal foods.
Fat-Soluble Vitamins Stored after Absorbed
• Absorption
• Attached to proteins in foods, released in the stomach
• Absorbed in the duodenum
• Packaged in chylomicrons  →lymph →bloodstream
• Lack of fat can lead to deficiency.

• Storage
• The liver is the main storage site for vitamin A; to a
lesser extent for vitamins K and E.
• Vitamin D is mainly stored in the fat and muscle tissue.
• Can build up in the body to the point of toxicity
Water-Soluble Not Stored after Absorption
• Absorption
• Absorbed with water directly into bloodstream
• Most absorbed in the duodenum and jejunum

• Excretion
• Not stored in the body
• Excess intake excreted through the urine

Consume adequate amounts daily

Dietary excesses may be harmful.
Digesting and Absorbing Vitamins
 What Are Antioxidants?
Compounds that Neutralize Free Radicals.

What Are Free Radicals?

Unstable organic molecules with unpaired
valance electron
Free Radicals damage the cells of your body
Factors that  free radical production:
• Exposure to Ingested Toxins
• Exposure to Environmental Pollutants
• Excessive UV-A Exposure
 Oxidative Stress
Oxidative stress - when free radicals accumulate faster
than body can metabolize them.
Damages DNA and body proteins, alters cell structure.

Excess free radicals = chronic diseases! Including

 Heart Disease
 Cancer  Diabetes
 Aging  Parkinson's Disease
 Alzheimer's Disease
 Antioxidants Neutralize Free Radicals
Include: Vitamin E, C,
Carotenoids, Selenium,
Flavonoids.
 Phytochemical Rich Foods
Phytochemicals are naturally occurring plant
compounds that stimulate immune system,
interact with hormones to prevent cancers.
• Carotenoids
• Flavonoids
e.g. Flavonoids Resveratrol

• Natural sources of phytochemicals in food

always have more health benefits than those
from supplements.
(indoles)
 Best Sources of Vitamins
• Whole Foods and Nutrient Dense
Fruits, vegetables, whole grains and dairy.
All are rich in vitamins, phytochemicals,
antioxidants, and fiber

• Dietary Guidelines for Americans Rec:

Eat a wide variety of foods from each food group,
with ample amounts of vitamin-rich fruits,
vegetables, whole grains, and dairy foods.
Most people should not need supplements.
 Vitamins Can Be Destroyed by:
Cooking or Storage

• Exposure to Oxygen
• Water-Soluble Vitamins
• Vitamins A, E, and K

• Exposure to Ultraviolet (UV) Light

• Riboflavin (B2)
• Beta-carotene (A) and vitamin C
 Vitamins Can Altered by Prepartation
• Water
• Most Water-Soluble vitamins – leach into H2O
• Changes in pH
• Thiamin and Vitamin C
• Heat
• Most water-soluble, esply vitamin C

• Vegetables and fruits begin to lose their vitamins

almost immediately after being harvested
• Some preparation and storage accelerate vitamin loss.
• Fat-soluble vitamins more stable.
 Vitamin Toxicity
• Vitamin toxicity (hypervitaminosis) is Very Rare
• Ingesting excess vitamins => tissue saturation
• Can damage cells.
• From supplements (megadoses); cannot occur
from eating whole foods.
 WHY are some Foods Fortified with Vitamins?
• Fortified foods: Addition of nutrients by manufacturers,
often by FDA regulation:
• For Low Quality food – to Replace nutrients that
were taken out of the original food source.
• Prevent or correct dietary deficiencies
• Ensure adequate intake – for those who know
absolutely nothing about good food : )
• Enrichment ~ Fortification.
• Fortification can contribute to health risks.
• Lead to vitamin excess
• Displace nutrient-rich foods (i.e. you forget to eat
real, nutritious healthy life giving foods!)
 Vitamin A
• Vitamin A is a Family of fat-soluble Retinoids:
Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic Aacid

Retinol Retinal Retinoic Acid

• Animal foods • Found in plants

• Stored in Body • Retinal = Vision
• Function: • Retinoic = Regulates growth
Reproduction
 Carotenoids
Are pigmented molecules in plants that give
intense orange, yellow and even red colors to a
variety of fruits and vegetables.

The carotenes that act as antioxidants are:

1)alpha carotene
2)beta carotene
3)lycopene
Beta-Carotene
A very important Carotenoid in Human Nutrition; a
pigment deep orange/yellow (e.g. carrots and pumpkin).
The human body has 2 functions for carotenes:
1. It turns it into Vitamin A 40% of carotenes
2. It turns it into an antioxidant. 60% of carotenes
 Lycopene
Bright Red carotene phytochemical.

Tomatoes are a perfect example.

Watermelon, papayas, guava

pink grapefruit.

Also in asparagus, brown beans

and parsley

Not in:
Cherries, Strawberries
or Red Bell Peppers.

Unlike beta carotene, it cannot convert into vitamin A.

 Vitamin A
Absorption and Transport
• Vit A absorbed by active transport with bile & micelles.

Packaged into chylomicrons and enter lymph.

Retinoic acid is attached to albumin.

Stored in the liver!

• Beta-carotene absorbed by passive diffusion
 Reduced with high fiber intake : (
 Improved in cooked foods : )
 Body Functions of Vitamin A
• Participates in:
• Vision
• Gene Transcription and Translation (Pro-Syn)
• Cell Differentiation
• Reproduction
• Bone health
• A healthy immune system

+ help fights cancer - Carotenoids are antioxidants.

 Vitamin A and Your Eyesight
Assists your Eyes in 3 major ways:

1) Prevents Night Blindness

2) Prevents Cataracts (like Vitamin C)

3) Preserve Eyesight throughout life

 Retinal and Its Role in Vision
1) Night Blindness
Rods are photoreceptors for black and white vision in the retina
The protein opsin and retinal need to combine in order
For rods to function properly.
 Cataracts
2) Cataracts
The lens of the eye becomes cloudy, impairs vision.

From the Latin word catracta, meaning “waterfall”, as your vision is

as if you are looking through one.
Vitamins C and E lutein and zeaxanthin lower cataract risk.
 Macular Degeneration
3) Macular Degeneration
Involves the destruction of the macula lutea in center of
retina where most of the cones (for color vision) reside.

Protect with Vitamins C, E, beta-carotene, zinc and copper

Daily Needs—Vitamin A
• Males: 900 μg and Females: 700 μg retinol
• UL: 3,000 μg
• Beta-carotene: 3 to 6 mg daily
• Excessive preformed A can be toxic.
• However, cannot be toxic levels from eating foods rich in
vitamins, only from supplements.
• >15,000 μg can cause symptoms of toxicity.
• Hypervitaminosis A may lead to liver damage and death!

Carotenoids in foods cannot be toxic, excess carotenoids can

cause carotenodermia
 Vitamin A Deficiency
• Chronic Deficiency => Night Blindness.
• Prolonged deficiency => Xerophthalmia – pathologic
dryness of conjunctiva and cornea of eye.
• Deficiency can lead to keratinization of epidermis
• Epithelial cells cannot secrete mucus and unable to
function properly, promoting infection.
 Vitamin D
The “Sunshine Vitamin"
Need two things!
1) Ultraviolet (UV) rays.
2) Form of Cholesterol in the skin.

All your vitamin D needs can be met by exposure to sunlight : )

Considered a prohormone - Found in two forms:

1) Cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) = in our skin and in animal foods

2) Ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) = in plants & dietary supplements

The Chemical Structure of Vitamin D
 The story of Vitamin D
UV B UV B
Light Light

UV Light
Epidermis of Skin +
7-dehydrocholesterol

Dermis of Skin
Cholecalciferol
(Vit D3)

Your cells only make Vitamin D if UV B

stimulation is adequate (~20 min/day)

“Calcidiol”
25-Hydroxycholecalciferol
(25-Hydroxy Vit D3)
Allow your healthy Liver to
process Vit D3 into Calcidiol.

Allow your healthy

Kidneys to process
Calcidiol into the
most active form, ACTIVE FORM
Calcitriol. “Calcitriol”
1,25-Hydroxycholecalciferol
(1,25-Hydroxy Vit D3)
 Great Food Sources of Vitamin D

Worlds Healthiest Foods for Vitamin D

Serving Amount DRI/DV Nutrient
Food Size Cal (IU) (%) Density
Salmon 4 oz 157.6 511.43 128 14.6
Sardines 3.20 oz 188.7 175.09 44 4.2

Milk 4 oz 74.4 62.22 16 3.8

Tuna 4 oz 147.4 92.99 23 2.8
Eggs 1 each 77.5 43.50 11 2.5
Mushrooms ½ cup 40.6 20.30 5 2.2
Metabolic Functions of Vitamin D
• Bone Growth
• Calcitriol  Ca2+ and PO43- absorption.
• Balances Osteoblasts and Osteoclasts actions.

• Powerful stimulator of Immune System

• Reduces Autoimmune Disorders
• Prevent Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 by 50% in adults
• Type 2 Diabetes assoc with low blood Vit D levels.
• Role in Blood Pressure regulation
• Significant role in Mood: Lack of D => Depression
Daily Needs - Vitamin D
Cells called Melanocytes in epidermis of skin make the
dark pigment Melanin – makes you tan after sun
exposure – then it protects you like natural suncreen!
The darker your skin, the more sun exposure you
require to have adequate vitamin D production.

Sunlight intensity during winter in some locations is not

sufficient to make enough vitamin D.
 Daily Needs Vitamin D
Adults: 15 to 20 μg (600 to 800 IU)/day
Upper limit (UL) ~ 100 μg (4,000 IU)
Children: 15 μg per day
UL: 50 μg (2,000 IU)
• High intake - loss of appetite, nausea, vomiting, and
constipation.
• Hypervitaminosis D can lead to hypercalcemia and
calcium deposits in vital organs.
• Too-high levels are very rarely caused by food intake
or overexposure to the sun.
 Vitamin D Deficiency
• Rickets in children
• Inadequately mineralization causing weak bones.
•  milk consumption, fear of skin cancer from sun
exposure, and air pollution

• Osteomalacia adult equivalent of rickets

• Osteoporosis: Significant loss in Bone Density
leads to increased fractures!
• Muscle and bone weakness and pain
 Vitamin E
Alpha-tocopherol most active form in body.

Synthetic form in supplements only ½ as

active.
Vitamin E
 Vitamin E Absorption and Transport

• Absorbed with bile and micelles

• Into chylomicrons ⟶ lymph ⟶ blood ⟶ liver

• 90% vitamin E stored in Adipose tissue.

Metabolic Functions of Vitamin E

• Acts as an Anticoagulant, inhibiting formation of
harmful clots inside bloodstream.
 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin E
Powerful Antioxidant
Protects cell membranes; prevents oxidation
of LDL cholesterol
 Daily Needs—Vitamin E
• Adults: 15 mg of alph-tocopherol.
• UL: 1,000 mg/day
 Vitamin E Toxicity and Deficiency
No risk of too much vitamin E from food sources!

Too much synthetic form may risk of a hemorrhage.

Deficiency Symptoms in Adults

Mild Anemia, Fragile RBCs
Neurological Damage
Disorders related to Reproduction and Infertility
Age spots, Cataracts
Muscle, liver, bone marrow brain abnormalities
Decrease in Sex Drive

Significantly more free radical damage to cell membranes

 Vitamin K
• 3 forms of vitamin K
• Menaquinone from intestinal bacteria. K1
• Phylloquinone is found in green plants. K2
• Menadione is the synthetic form
 Vitamin K Absorption and Transport

• Most absorbed in Jejunum.

• We only get ~10% vitamin K from our bacteria. : (
• Into chylomicrons and to liver.

• When a diet is deficient in vitamin K storage forms

are transported by VLDL, LDL, and HDL.
• Stored mostly in liver
 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin K1
Vitamin K1 Promotes Blood Clotting
Involved in synthesizing 4 blood-clotting factors!
Natural Foods Rich in Vitamin K1 and K2
1) Green Leafy Vegetables (Kale) ½ c: 444 mcg (over 100% DV)
2) Natto (Fermented soy) 2 oz: 500 mcg (over 100% DV)
3) Spring Onions (Scallions) ½ c: 103 mcg (over 100% DV)
4) Brussels Sprouts ½ c: 78 mcg (98% DV)
5) Cabbage ½ cup: 82 mcg (over 100% DV)
6) Broccoli ½ c: 46 mcg (58% DV)
7) Dairy (Fermented) ½ c: 10 mcg (10% DV)
8) Prunes ½ c: 52 mcg (65% DV)
9) Cucumbers 1 med 49 mcg (61% DV)
10) Dried basil 1 Tbsp: 36 mcg (45% DV)
 Natural
Foods Rich
in Vitamin
K2
 Metabolic Functions of Vitamin K2
Vitamin K2 Activate 2 crucial Proteins for Ca2+

• Activates Osteocalcin protein

• Activates Matrix Gla Protein (MGP)

Daily Needs—Vitamin K
• Adults: Men: 120 μg/day, Women: 90 μg/day

• No known adverse Toxicity

• If on anticoagulant medications should keep vitamin K
intake consistent! Changes in intake can increase or
decrease drug effectiveness.

• Deficiency
• Heart Disease and Vitamin K deficiency go hand in hand!
• Deficiency severe enough to affect blood clotting is
extremely rare.
Are Vitamin Supplements Necessary for
Good Health?
• Supplements:
• *Supplements can't be removed unless they have
been shown to be unsafe or cause harm.

• How to choose a supplement

• Read the label carefully.

 Vitamins and Good Health
• Will be helpful if your diet is Lacking. Also for:

• Pregnant and lactating women

• Older individuals who need vitamin B12

• Those who lack dietary vitamin D or sun exposure

• Vegetarians and Vegans
• Those with food allergies or lactose intolerance
• Individuals who abuse alcohol