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Concepts
Definition of Terms
Statistics refer to the science that deals with the
collection, tabulation or presentation, analysis, and
interpretation of numerical or quantitative data.
Mean (mu) x
Standard Deviation (sigma) s
Variance 2 s2
Proportion P p
Pearson Correlation Coef. R r
Number of Cases N n
Variables
Variable is one of the basic concepts in
statistics. It refers to observable
characteristics or phenomena of a person
or object whereby the members of the
group or set vary or differ from one
another. A variable is a symbol such as X,
Y, Z, a, b, c, etc. which can assume any
domain of the variable. If the variable can
assume only one value it is called a
constant. (e.g. - )
Discrete and Continuous
Variables
A variable which can be theoretically assume
any value between two given values is called a
continuous variable, otherwise it is called a
discrete variable.
Example: the number of houses in a community
is a discrete variable- it can be measure any of the
values 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. but cannot be 1.5, 3.34,
4.624, etc.
The weight of an individual, which can be 45.3
kg., 50.50 kg., 70.345 kg., etc depending on the
accuracy of measurement, is a continuous variable.
In general, measurement gives rise to
continuous data while enumeration or counting
gives rise to discrete data.
Dependent and
Independent Variables
Variables can be grouped into dependent and
independent variables with respect on their use.
Independent variable is used as predictor if the
objective is to predict the value of one variable on the
basis of the other. Contrary to this, dependent variable
means the variable whose value is predicted. To
illustrate, if we want to predict or foresee the students’
academic achievement in mathematics, we may
analyze the different factors such as gender, study
habits, intelligence quotient, interest, attitudes, socio-
economic status and many more. Hence, the
independent variables are gender, study habits,
intelligence quotient, interest, attitudes, and socio-
economic status. On the other hand, the dependent
variable is the student’ academic achievement in
mathematics.
Uses of Statistics
According to Ary and Jacobs (1976), statistics is a
body of scientific methods for analyzing quantitative
data. Statistics produces two functions: (1) they aid the
scientist in organizing, summarizing, interpreting and
communicating quantitative information obtained from
observations and (2) they allow scientist to extrapolate
the data to reach tentative conclusions about the larger
group from which the smallest group was derived. The
statistical procedure dealing with the first function are
generally called descriptive statistics (gathering,
classification, presentation of data and collection of
summarizing values) while the procedures dealing with
the second function are called inferential statistics
(critical judgement and mathematical methods).
Types of Data
Statistical tools rely on the types of data that are collected.
Among the different types are as follows:
Stratified Random Sampling. In this method the population is first divided into
groups – based on homogeneity – in order to avoid possibility of drawing
samples whose members come only from one stratum.
3. Registration Method
This method of gathering information is enforced by
certain law. Examples are the registration of births,
deaths, motor vehicles, marriages, and licenses.
The advantage of this method is that information is
kept systematized and made available to all
because of the requirement of the law.
4. Observation Method
Observation method is utilized to gather
data regarding attitudes, behavior, values,
and cultural patterns of the sample under
study. It is usually used when the subjects
cannot talk or write.
5. Experiment Method
An experiment is applied to collect data if
the investigator wants to control the factors
affecting the variable being studied.
Methods of Presenting
Data
Collected data are useless and
invalid if they are not presented
effectively for analyses and
interpretations. Data are presented in
four general methods: [1] textural
method, [2] tabular method, [3] semi-
tabular method, and [4] graphical
method or presentation.
Frequency Distribution
Bar Graph – is used to represent discrete data, where the bars are
separated. The length of each bar is arbitrary. However, the bars
must be of the same width. Thus, the bar graph is almost like as
the histogram, the only difference is that the bars of the histogram
are joined.