Syntax: PS The English Language: Foundations, Forms and Functions

Syntax
PS The English Language: Foundations, Forms and

Functions
24.11.2015 WS 2015/2016
1
Overview
➔ Syntax: definition and different approaches
1) Clause structure and analysis: elements, criteria, types
2) Phrases: types, role
3) Word classes: criteria, CGEL classification
➔ Multiple - class membership: determiner/determinative vs.
pronoun
2
what is
syntax?
σύνταξις
sun tàxi
s
3
Other syntactic
Analysis of the theories
structure of e.g. dependency
theory, generative
sentences
approaches, Minimalist
→ rules Program
→ principles
→ processes Traditional grammar
→ tradition of describing
the rules of a language
→ Latin/Greek origin:
inappropriate for the
description of
English/German
4
Comprehensive Grammar of
the English Language (CGEL)
- Quirk, Greenbaum, Leech,
Svartvik
→ largest and most detailed

descriptive grammar
→ how language is used by speakers
→ vs. prescriptive: correct and
incorrect use of rules
5
Sentences → largest unit of description
Sentence > clause/phrase > word > morpheme → basic unit of investigation
→ highest unit of analysis
6
Clause
(CGEL)
1. Dependent (subordinate): forms a
constituent of a larger clause
e.g. Barbara Hepworth had also begun to work
Unit of linguistic analysis in metal
7
1. Dependent (subordinate): forms a
constituent of a larger clause
e.g. Barbara Hepworth had also begun to work
in metal
Clause
(CGEL)
2. Independent (main): not a
Unit of linguistic analysis constituent of a larger clause.
→ sentence
→ coordination (for, and, but, or…)
e.g. I went to Italy and I visited Rome
8
Clause analysis (I)
«It is a fundamental principle of traditional
grammar, and also of much modern syntactic
theory, that every simple, declarative sentence
consists of two obligatory major constituents, a
subject and a predicate; and that it may
contain, in addition, one or more adjunts.
Adjunts (of place, time, manner, reason..) are

optional, or structurally dispensable,
consituents of the sentence: they may be
removed without affecting the remainder of the
sentence.»
Lyons (1968)
9
Clause analysis (I)
«It is a fundamental principle of traditional
grammar, and also of much modern syntactic
theory, that every simple, declarative sentence
consists of two obligatory major constituents, a
subject and a predicate; and that it may
contain, in addition, one or more adjunts. NUCLEUS
S+P
Adjunts (of place, time, manner, reason..) are
optional, or structurally dispensable,
consituents of the sentence: they may be
removed without affecting the remainder of the EXTRA-NUCLEUS
sentence.»
A
Lyons (1968)
10
→ Subject
● Obligatory
e.g. I went home
● Realized by a noun phrase (i.e. phrase with a noun/pronoun as head
word)
● Shows concord with the verb of the predicate
11
→ Predicate
● Obligatory
● Contains a verb and possibly other elements
● Shows concord with the subject
! No general agreement on the use of the term

- “the rest of the sentence apart from the subject” (Robin,
1971:240)
- Modern syntactic theories: corresponds to the main verb
12
- Barbara Hepworth had begun to work in metal
13
- Barbara Hepworth | had begun to work in metal
Subject Predicate
14
→ Adjunct
● Optional from a structural point of view
e.g. Barbara Hepworth had also begun to work in metal
15
→ Adjunct
● Optional from a structural point of view
e.g. Barbara Hepworth had also begun to work in metal
Barbara Hepworth | had | also | begun to work in metal

Subject P→ A ← Predicate
16
Elements of clause structure (CGEL)
● Subject
● Verb Further analysis of the predicate
● Object into smaller constituents
→ the two approaches are
● Complement highly compatible!
● Adverbial
17
→ functional categories
The same formal element can fulfill different functions in different clauses
e.g. Colour: noun; outside a context, does not have a specific function
18
- I liked the colour of her t-shirt
- Colour is the spectral composition of visible light
19
- I liked the colour of her t-shirt OBJECT
- Colour is the spectral composition of visible light SUBJECT
20
Criteria for the distinction between different
elements of clause structure (CGEL)
21
Subject
● Morphological criteria
→ pronouns functioning as subjects take the subjective case (I, he, she, they...)
● Positional criteria
→ Subject normally precedes the verb
● Semantic criteria
→ Subject status = semantic role (agentive)
22
Predicatives (CamG 2002; 251-253)
● Usually follow the verb

● If realized by pronouns, take the objective case (him/her/them…)
e.g. She told him to open the door
23
Predicatives (CamG 2002; 251-253)
● Usually follow the verb

● If realized by pronouns, take the objective case (him/her/them…)
e.g. She told him to open the door
Object
● can become the subject of passive clauses
e.g. Sally read the novel in one day → The novel was read by Sally in a day
24
Object
When two objects occur:
1. Indirect: realizing an animate being, recipient of the action
e.g. They sent him a postcard → to whom?
25
Object
When two objects occur:
1. Indirect: realizing an animate being, recipient of the action
e.g. They sent him a postcard → to whom?
2. Direct: affected by the action denoted in the clause
e.g. David repaired his car → what did he repair?
e.g. She wrote me a very nice letter

26
Complement
● Cannot become the subject of passive clauses
● Can be realized by adjectives
27
Complement
● Cannot become the subject of passive clauses
● Can be realized by adjectives
1. Subject complement: refers to the subject
e.g. He was considered one of the leading artists of his generation
e.g. That period at St. Ives was idyllic
28
Complement
1. Object complement: refers to the object
e.g. I considered him one of the leading artists of his generation
I considered him excellent
29
Adverbials
● General mobility within the sentence
● Provide information about temporal/spatial/other circumstances
e.g. She will be arriving in a short time
David walked on the top of the building
30
Excercise
1) They named their daughter Alice
2) The teacher gave the student a good mark
3) The party got everyone excited
4) After the first day of school, Jenny became my friend for life
31
Excercise

Direct Object Object Complement
32
Excercise


Indirect Direct Object
Object
33
Excercise


Object
Object Complement
4) After our first day of school, Jenny became my friend for life
34
Excercise


Object
Object Complement
4) After our first day of school, Jenny became my friend for life
Subject Complement
35
CGEL’s Clause types
36
Classification of
verbs 1. Intransitive: no object
37
1. Intransitive: no object
Classification of 2. Transitive: take 1+ objects

→ Monotransitive: one direct
verbs object
→ Ditransitive: two objects
(direct, indirect)
→ Complex transitive: last
element is a complement
/adverbial
38
1. Intransitive: no object
2. Transitive: take 1+ objects
→ Monotransitive: one direct
Classification of object
→ Ditransitive: two objects
verbs (direct, indirect)
→ Complex transitive: last
element is a complement
/adverbial
3. Copular: links the subject to the
complement
→ to be, to become
39
Verb class
SV She is reading
SVC This is an island

SVA She was there
SVO She is reading a book
SVOO He gave her the book
SVOC She called him a fool
SVOA She put the book on the table
40
Verb class
SV She is reading Intransitive
SVC This is an island

SVA She was there
41
Verb class
SVC This is an island Copula

SVA She was there
42
Verb class

SVA She was there Copula
43
Verb class

SVO She is reading a book Monotransitive
44
Verb class

SVOO He gave her the book Ditransitive
45
Verb class

SVOC She called him a fool Complex transitive
46
Verb class

SVOC She called him a fool Complex transitive
SVOA She put the book on the table Complex transitive
47
● A phrase is a group of words
that stand together as a
single unit, typically as part of
Phrases a clause or sentence.
48
● A phrase is a group of words
that stand together as a
single unit, typically as part of
Phrases a clause or sentence.
MAIN DIFFERENCE WITH

! A CLAUSE: It does not
contain a subject or verb
49
Examples to distinguish sentence and
clause:
1) I cannot remember what she said last night.
2) When he moved to St. Ives, Nicholson acquired one large Porthmeor studio.
3) During the summer St. Ives has attracted many visitors.
50
clause:
2) When he moved to St. Ives, Nicholson acquired one large Porthmeor studio.
51
clause:
→ Noun clause with the function of a direct object.
2) When he moved to St. Ives, Nicholson acquired one large Porthmeor

studio.
→ Adverbial clause with the function of an adverb.
→ Prepositional phrase Noun phrase Verb phrase Noun phrase
52
Endocentric/Headed phrases:
1) Noun phrases
2) Verb phrases
Types of phrases 3) Adjective phrases
4) Adverb phrases
Which formal elements of a
sentence can function as an Exocentric/Non-headed phrases:
element of the clause structure?
5) Prepositional phrases
53
Phrases which can be replaced by a
single word and are divided in head
and modifiers.
Endocentric/Headed phrases:
1) Noun phrases
2) Verb phrases
Types of phrases 3) Adjective phrases
4) Adverb phrases
Which formal elements of a
sentence can function as an Exocentric/Non-headed phrases:
element of the clause structure?
5) Prepositional phrases
Phrases which cannot be
replaced by a single word.
54
Composed by:
● Determinatives/determiners
- Function: establish reference
- Examples: the, many, this, that..
1)Noun phrases
● Modifiers
- Describe what is expressed by
the head
- They can be divided in
premodifiers (before the head)
and postmodifiers (after the
head)
55
Composed by:
● Determinatives/determiners.
- Function: establish reference
- Examples: the, many, this, that..
1)Noun phrases
● Modifiers
D H
- Describe what is expressed by
This fascinating book on linguistics.
the head.
Premodifier Postmodifier - They can be divided in
premodifiers (before the head
and postmodifiers (after the
head).
56
They can refer to:
A. Whole predicate
B. A verb and the auxiliary verbs
used to express categories as
2) Verb phrases aspect, modality or voice.
In a compound verb distinguish

between:
1. Main verb = Head function

2. Auxiliary verb = Modifier
function
57
They can refer to:
A. Whole predicate
B. A verb and the auxiliary verbs
used to express categories as
2) Verb phrases aspect, modality or voice.
In a compound verb distinguish

between:
is being used
1. Main verb = Head function
Aux MV
2. Auxiliary verb = Modifier
function
58
Formed by the head and the
3) Adjective modifiers.
phrases
Both modifiers:
premodifiers
and
postmodifiers
must be seen as
one complex
discontinuous
modifier.
59
Formed by the head and the
3) Adjective modifiers
phrases Both modifiers:

premodifiers
and
postmodifiers
too far to walk must be seen as
one complex
discontinuous
modifier
60
4) Adverb
They have the same
phrases characteristics as the adjective
phrases, but the head of the
phrase is an adverb.
61
IDENTIFY THE HEAD AND THE MODIFIERS. WHAT KIND OF
PHRASES ARE THESE?
The teachers who refuse to do tutorials with their students are being criticized
due to their lack of involvement.
62
PHRASES ARE THESE?
HEAD
63
PHRASES ARE THESE?
HEAD
MODIFIER
64
PHRASES/ CLAUSES ARE THESE?
HEAD
The teachers who refuse to do tutorials with their students are VERB
MODIFIER being criticized
PHRASE

NOUN PHRASE
65
Construction:
PREPOSITION + PREPOSITIONAL COMPLEMENT
5) Prepositional
phrase Both elements are indispensables and
they cannot be replaced by a single
word.
66
The role of the phrase
67
● Phrase must be seen as a central unit of linguistic description as it is the
connexion between the speaker and the objects or people he is referring
to.
● EXAMPLE TO UNDERSTAND
Book Those adventure books
68
● Phrase must be seen as a central unit of linguistic description as it is the
connexion between the speaker and the objects or people he is referring
to.
● EXAMPLE TO UNDERSTAND
Book Those adventure books
- idea about the object - enables you to identify the specific object
- you cannot identify it
69
Experiment about the important role of
the phrase
1. People had to listen some recorded sentences which contained some
“clicks”.
2. They were asked to indicate those “clicks” in the sentences.
3. They only did it correctly when the “clicks” were at phrase boundaries
(between one phrase and another); otherwise, people tended to move it
to the boundary
70
Word classes
71
Criteria for the establishment of word
classes
● PROBLEM: To describe how words combine → Generalizations
- Not all the features associated with a word class are applicable to all the
members. Example: advice = uncountable noun (no plural form).
- With the definitions of nouns (persons, things or ideas) and verbs
(actions) we face some cases which does not follow this rule.
72
classes
● PROBLEM: To describe how words combine → Generalizations
- Not all the features associated with a word class are applicable to all the
members. Example: advice = uncountable noun (no plural form).
- With the definitions of nouns (persons, things or ideas) and verbs
(actions) we face some cases which does not follow this rule.
Arrival Be, belong
Noun denoting an action Verbs not denoting actions
73
classes (II)
● Different types of criteria have been used throughout history such as the
semantic, positional or morphological criteria with the aim of drawing the
difference between word classes but none of them succeeded to clarify
this difference.
● Although they are different, all of them identify three word classes:
nouns, verbs and adjectives.
74
CGEL’s word classes
I. NOUN (Paul, answer, grammar) VII. DETERMINER (the, a)
II. ADJECTIVE (happy, interesting) VIII. CONJUNCTION (and, with)
III. FULL VERB (search, play) IX. MODAL VERB (will, must)
IV. ADVERB (completely, extremely) X. PRIMARY VERB (be, have, do)
V. PREPOSITION (without, behind) XI. NUMERAL (two, twenty)
VI. PRONOUN (he, one) XII. INTERJECTION (oh, ah)
* Word of unique function: not (negative particle) and to (infinitive marker).
75
I. NOUN (Paul, answer, grammar) VII. DETERMINER (the, a)
II. ADJECTIVE (happy, interesting) VIII. CONJUNCTION (and, with)
III. FULL VERB (search, play) IX. MODAL VERB (will, must)
IV. ADVERB (completely, extremely) X. PRIMARY VERB (be, have, do)
V. PREPOSITION (without, behind) XI. NUMERAL (two, twenty)
VI. PRONOUN (he, one) XII. INTERJECTION (oh, ah)
* Word of unique function: not (negative particle) and to (infinitive marker).
76
I. NOUN (Paul, answer, grammar)
II. ADJECTIVE (happy, interesting)
III. FULL VERB (search, play)
IV. ADVERB (completely, extremely)
OPEN CLASSES: the number of words comprised not restricted and new words can
be added.
77
V. PREPOSITION (without, behind)
VI. PRONOUN (he, one)
CLOSED CLASSES: the number VII. DETERMINER (the, a)

of words is limited and not
easy to change. VIII. CONJUNCTION (and, with)
IX. MODAL VERB (will, must)
X. PRIMARY VERB (be, have, do)
78
❖ Full or lexical verb
- It has a base form which can occur
on his own in infinitive and present
tense (except 3rd per. sin.)
- Third person singular in present
Verbs tense {-s}
- It is tensed and shows differences
between present and past tense
- Present participle {-ing}
- It can form a past participle → *in
some cases it coincides with the past
form
79
❖ Modal verbs (can, may..)
- Don’t admit suffixation by {-s}
- Don’t have participle form
Verbs (II)
❖ Primary verbs (be, do, have)
- They work as main verbs or
auxiliary verbs
80
Identify the type of verb:
face
have to
arrive
may
belong
occur
81
Identify the type of verb:
face - Full or lexical verb
have to - Modal verb
arrive - Full or lexical verb
may - Modal verb
belong - Primary verb
occur - Full or lexical verb
82
Characterized by these criteria:
- Attributive use
- Predicative use
- Premodification by adverbs as very
or extremely
ADJECTIVES - Comparative / superlative forms
83
Characterized by these criteria:
- Attributive use
- Predicative use
- Premodification by adverbs as very
or extremely
ADJECTIVES - Comparative / superlative forms
Those criteria are not applicable to

all the adjectives.
* an afraid person
* These expressions are very synonymous.
84
Difference between:
ADJECTIVES - Central adjectives: they can
(II) occur in attributive and

predicative positions.
- Peripheral adjectives: they

occur in only one of these
positions.
85
The infinite knowledge
Difference between:
The knowledge is infinite

The asleep John - Peripheral adjectives: they

John is asleep positions.
86
The infinite knowledge
Difference between:
The knowledge is infinite

The asleep John - Peripheral adjectives: they

John is asleep positions.
87
A word or a particular word form
can assume different word
Multiple-class classes according to the context,
depending on
membership → properties of the words
→ how words are analysed
88
1. The bloody bird has been annoying me for days.
-ing
This was extremely annoying.
It was the car that annoyed her.

We were very annoyed. -ed
89
1. The bloody bird has been annoying me for days. → verb
This was extremely annoying. → adjective
It was the car that annoyed her. → verb

We were very annoyed. → adjective
90
Some exercices
1. We can profit by this special sale to make new investments.
→ verb
2. This American company made an outstanding profit last year.
→ noun
3. This a very famous company which trades with other companies
abroad.
→ verb
4. International trade has been increasing in the last few years.
→ noun
5. Mark financed his house through the bank.
→ verb
6. Alice studied finance and accounting at school.
→ noun 91
An example of multiple class membership
1. Would you like to come round for a cup of tea? → Adverb
2. It’s just round the corner. → Preposition
3. They’d have their round hat boxes… → Adjective
4. He enjoyed a round of golf and playing cricket… → Noun
5. You round the Point to make your way south to Douglas
– first on beaches, then on cliff and meadow paths. → Verb
92
Pronoun Determiner
● Substitutes a noun ● Determinative function
● Head of the noun phrases ● Determinates the referents of the noun
phrase
1) This was followed in the 1960s by a series 1) The prehistooric standing stones of the
of paintings… Penwith paninsula were the catalyst for this
2) These were necessary to ensure that there transformation.
was not overlap where two colour-areas 2) These years brought artistic success for
touched… Wood.
3) It is impossible to discuss Heron’s 3) Heron had always been irritated by those
paintings, particulary those of the 1970s, literal-minded critics who insisted in
without drawing on his own writings seeking references to the Cornish
about them. landscape (…) in the shapes and contours of
4) Each new period… seemed to involve an his paintings.
abandonment of all that had gone before, 4) Each new period … seemed to involve an
so that each could be said to mark a true abandonment of all that had gone before,
93
beginning again. so that each could be said to mark a true
Demonstrative pronouns which
Aarts and Aarts “function as constituents of the
sentence or in the structure of the
noun phrase”.
94
● Pure pronouns (someone,
everybody, you): occur only as
Herbst and pronouns
Schüller ● Pure determiners (a, an,

little, no): occur only as
determiners
● Determiner-pronouns (this,
that, each): both uses
95
Preposition and subordinating
conjunctions
The concept of multiple class membership consists of using words in different ways, e.g. before.
1. Your name comes before mine on the list.

→ Preposition
2. I always go for a run before I have dinner.
→ Subordinating conjunction
3. You can’t go outside before finishing your homework.
→ Subordinating conjunction
4. I have seen her before.
→ Adverb
96
Some possible solutions:
Categorizing these types of words, such as since and before, according
to their different uses and assigning them to one world class.
CamG classifies the most subordinating conjunctions and adverbs as

prepositions.
Herbst and Schüller introduce a word class particle to gather together

prepositions, subordinating conjunctions and adverbs.
Particles are seen as valency carriers and for this reason their different
uses are described as valency properties of this particles.
97
Word classes in English
How many word classes are there? How are they distinguished?
98
It is impossible to make
a clear classification of
word classes because of
the nature of words and
analysts arrive to
different conclusions,
too.
99
What about English learner’s dictionaries?
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English or Oxford Advanced Learner’s

Dictionary do not always indicate which word class belongs to the word.
100

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Syntax

PS The English Language: Foundations, Forms and

→ largest and most detailed

→ highest unit of analysis

Adjunts (of place, time, manner, reason..) are

! No general agreement on the use of the term

e.g. Barbara Hepworth had also begun to work in metal

e.g. Barbara Hepworth had also begun to work in metal

Barbara Hepworth | had | also | begun to work in metal

- I liked the colour of her t-shirt

- Colour is the spectral composition of visible light

- I liked the colour of her t-shirt OBJECT

- Colour is the spectral composition of visible light SUBJECT

● Usually follow the verb

e.g. She told him to open the door

● Usually follow the verb

e.g. She told him to open the door

1. Indirect: realizing an animate being, recipient of the action

e.g. They sent him a postcard → to whom?

1. Indirect: realizing an animate being, recipient of the action

e.g. They sent him a postcard → to whom?

2. Direct: affected by the action denoted in the clause

e.g. David repaired his car → what did he repair?

e.g. She wrote me a very nice letter

1. Subject complement: refers to the subject

e.g. He was considered one of the leading artists of his generation

e.g. That period at St. Ives was idyllic

e.g. I considered him one of the leading artists of his generation

I considered him excellent

e.g. She will be arriving in a short time

David walked on the top of the building

1) They named their daughter Alice

2) The teacher gave the student a good mark

3) The party got everyone excited

1) They named their daughter Alice

2) The teacher gave the student a good mark

3) The party got everyone excited

1) They named their daughter Alice

2) The teacher gave the student a good mark

1) They named their daughter Alice

2) The teacher gave the student a good mark

1) They named their daughter Alice

2) The teacher gave the student a good mark

Classification of 2. Transitive: take 1+ objects

SVC This is an island

SVO She is reading a book

SVOO He gave her the book

SVOC She called him a fool

SVOA She put the book on the table

SVC This is an island

SVO She is reading a book

SVOO He gave her the book

SVOC She called him a fool

SVOA She put the book on the table

SVC This is an island Copula

SVO She is reading a book

SVOO He gave her the book

SVOC She called him a fool

SVOA She put the book on the table

SVC This is an island Copula

SVO She is reading a book

SVOO He gave her the book

SVOC She called him a fool