EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 1

EEE3183
CIRCUITS AND
SIGNALS 2
12/15/2020 Chapter 1 - AC Power Analysis
 11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
2

 The instantaneous power (in watts) is the power at any

instant of time.
p(t )  v(t )i (t )
 v(t) & i(t) = instantaneous voltage and current.
 Since the instantaneous power changes with time and is
therefore difficult to measure, the average power is more
convenient for use instead.
1 1
P Re[VI *]  Vm I m cos( v   i )
2 2
 Vm & Im = peak voltage and current
 θv & θi = voltage and current angles
EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020
 11.2 Instantaneous and Average Power
3

 A resistive load (R) absorbs power at all times,

while a reactive load (L or C) absorbs zero average
power.
 PP 11.1 – PP11.3.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
4

 For maximum average power transfer, the load

impedance ZL must be equal to the complex
conjugate of the Thevenin impedance ZTh.
Z L  RL  jX L  RTh  jX Th  Z *Th
 Setting RL = RTh and XL = -XTh gives us the
maximum average power as:
2
VTh
Pmax 
8 RTh

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.3 Maximum Average Power Transfer
5

 In a situation in which the load is purely real, the

condition for maximum power transfer is obtained
by setting XL = 0 and:

RL  R 2T h  X 2Th  ZTh

 PP 11.5 – PP11.6

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.4 Effective or RMS Value
6

 The effective value of a periodic current is the dc current

that delivers the same average power to a resistor as the
periodic current.
1 T 1 T
   
2
Vrms v dt I rms i 2 dt
T 0 T 0

 The effective value of a periodic signal is its root mean

square (rms) value.
 It is convenient in power analysis to express voltage and
current in their rms values.
 PP 11.7 – PP11.8
EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020
 11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
7

 The apparent power (in VA) is the product of the

rms values of voltage and current.
S  Vrms I rms
 The apparent power is so called because it seems
apparent that the power should be the voltage-
current product. It is measured in volt-amperes or
VA to distinguish it from the average or real power,
which is measured in watts.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
8

 The power factor is dimensionless, since it is the

ratio of the average power to the apparent power,
P
pf   cos( v   i )
S
 The angle θv-θi is called the power factor angle,
since it is the angle whose cosine is the power
factor. The power factor angle is equal to the angle
of the load impedance if V is the voltage across the
load and I is the current through it.
V Vm  v Vm
Z    v   i 
I I m  i Im
EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020
 11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
9

 The value of pf ranges between zero and unity.

 For a purely resistive load, the voltage and current
are in phase, so that pf=1 and ( v   i )  0
 Apparent power = average power (real power)
 For a purely reactive load, pf = 0 and ( v   i )  90
 Average power (real power) = 0.
 In between these two extremes, pf is said to be
leading or lagging.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.5 Apparent Power and Power Factor
10

 Leading power factor means that current leads the

voltage, which implies a capacitive load.
 Lagging power factor means that current lags
voltage, implying an inductive load.
 PP 11.9 – PP 11.10

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.6 Complex Power
11

 Complex power (in VA) is the product of the rms

voltage phasor and the complex conjugate of the
rms current phasor.
 As a complex quantity, its real part is real power P
and its imaginary part is reactive power Q.
 2  V 2 rms  
S  I rms Z    Vrms I *rms  P  jQ
Z*

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.6 Complex Power
12

 P is the average or real power (in watts) and it

depends on the load’s resistance R. It is the actual
power dissipated by the load.
 Q depends on the load’s reactance X and is called the
reactive power (in volt-ampere reactive VAR). It is a
measure of the energy exchange between the source
and the reactive part of the load.
 Q = 0 for resistive loads (unity pf)
 Q < 0 for capacitive loads (leading pf)
 Q > 0 for inductive loads (lagging pf)
EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020
 11.6 Complex Power
13

 The power triangle is used to illustrate the relationship between the

complex power, the real power, reactive power and the power factor
angle.
 Given two of these items, the other
two can easily be obtained from
the triangle.
 When S lies in the first quadrant,
we have an inductive load and a
lagging pf.
 When S lies in the fourth quadrant,
the load is capacitive and the pf is
leading.
 PP 11.11 – PP 11.12
EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020
 11.6 Complex Power
14

 Summary of power equations:

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.7 Conservation of AC Power
15

 The complex, real and reactive powers of the

sources equal the respective sums of the complex,
real and reactive powers of the individual loads.
S  S1  S 2  ...  S N
 ie. The total power supplied by the source equals the
total power delivered to the load.
 PP 11.13 – PP 11.14

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.8 Power Factor Correction
16

 The process of increasing the power factor without

altering the voltage or current to the original load is
known as power factor correction.
 Since most loads are inductive, a load’s power
factor is improved by installing a capacitor in
parallel with the load.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.8 Power Factor Correction
17

 This causes the phase angle

between the supplied voltage
and current to reduce as shown
in the figure.
 Notice from the magnitudes of the vectors that with
the same supplied voltage, the circuit draws larger
current than one without pf correction.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.8 Power Factor Correction
18

 Power companies charge more for larger currents,

because they result in increased power losses.
 Therefore it is beneficial to both the power
company and the consumer that effort is made to
minimize the current level or keep the pf as close to
unity as possible.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020

 11.8 Power Factor Correction
19

 The value of the required shunt/parallel capacitance

for pf correction is determined as:
QC P (tan 1  tan  2 )
C 
V rms
2
V 2 rms

 The real power is not affected

by the pf correction because the
average power due to the
capacitance is zero.
 PP 11.15
EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020
 References
20

 Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, 4th Edition –

Alexander Sadiku, McGraw Hill.

EEE3183 – Circuits & Signals 2 12/15/2020