SUBMITTED BY:

V.POOJA MAHATHI - 060139

INTRODUCTION:
•A shell structure is a thin, curved membrane or slab, usually of
reinforced concrete, that functions both as structure and covering,
the structure deriving its strength and rigidity from the curved
shell forms.

• Shell structures predominantly resist loads on them by direct

compression. That is without bending or flexure.

•Since most materials are more effective in compression than in

bending, shell structures result in lesser thickness than flat
structures.

MATERIAL:
•The material most suited to the construction of a shell structure is
concrete.
TYPES:
•Shell structures are sometimes described as single or double
curvature shells.

•Single curvature shells, curved on one linear axis, are part of

cylindrical or cone in the form of barrel vaults and conoid shells.

•Double curvature shells are either part of a sphere, as a dome, or a

hyperboloid of revolution.
FOLDED PLATES:
•Folded plates are the simplest of the shell structures.

•The distinguishing feature of the folded plate is the ease in

forming plane surfaces.

•They are more adaptable to smaller areas than curved surfaces.

•A folded plate may be formed for about the same cost as a

horizontal slab and has much less steel and concrete for the same
spans.

•For widths of plate over, say, 12 feet, the thickness of the folded
plate must be thicker.

•Some advantage may be gained by increasing the thickness of the

slab just at the valleys so it will act as a haunched beam and as an I
section plate girder.
BASIC ELEMENTS:

1)The inclined plates

2) edge plates which must be used to stiffen the wide plates

3) stiffeners to carry the loads to the supports and to hold the

plates in line, and

4) columns to support the structure in the air. Are the main 4

elements of folded plates.

1)If several units were placed side by side, the edge plates should
be omitted except for the first and last plate.

2) If the edge plate is not omitted on inside edges, the form should
be called a two segment folded plate with a common edge plate.
THREE SEGMENT FOLDED PLATE:

•This sketch shows a folded plate structure with three segments for
each barrel.

• The end stiffeners are rigid frames rather than deep girders as in
the last example.

•The size of the frames may be reduced by using a steel tie between
the tops of the columns.

•The depth of the shell should be about 0.10 times the span.

• The maximum slope of a plate should not be greater than 40

degrees.
Z SHELL:

•Each of the units above has one large sloping plate and two edge
plates arranged with space between the units for windows.

• The windows are normally open to the north but most of the light
is actually reflected south light.

•Adjacent units should be tied together by structural window

mullions.

• In constructing the Z shell, movable forms need only be lowered

a short vertical distance if construction is started on the right and
proceeds to the left.

•The Z shell is not an efficient structural shape since it is

discontinuous and its effective depth is much less than the actual
vertical depth.

• Therefore, the spans are limited in comparison to the plates

having a large number of units side by side.
WALLS CONTINUOUS WITH SHELL:

•In this structure the walls are of tilt-up concrete construction

concrete is cast flat on the floor and raised into place by cranes.

•The walls are designed to be continuous with the roof plates.

• Tilt-up walls usually are joined by poured-in-place columns.

•In this design, columns are not necessary at the junction of the
individual side wall panels because the walls are braced at the top.

•Only a simple grouted key slot is provided.

•The tilt-up panels can serve as their own foundation walls so only
a continuous footing pad is used with a notch to receive the tilt-up
panel.

•The tilt-up walls can be designed for this lateral load because they
are held at the top by the shell and act as vertical beams rather
than as cantilever retaining.
CANOPIES:

•This folded plate has four segments.

•A two segment structure is not desirable because it has very little

torsional resistance.

•If it is absolutely necessary to have a two element system, a torsion

member can be placed in the valley which will carry the
unbalanced loads.

•Stiffeners can often be hidden on the top surface so they are not in
evidence and the shell will appear to spring from the vertical
column.

• At the wall of the building there should also be a stiffener hidden

in the wall construction.

•Provision should be made for drainage of the centre valley.

TAPERED FOLDED PLATES:

•The height of the shells at the centre of the span is the critical
dimension for bending strength.

•Therefore, the structure is not very efficient and not suitable for
long spans because of the excess height required for the large ends.

•Another weak element in this design is the transfer of shear from

the small end of the triangular plate to the large end.

•If a large number of units are used in each span, the transfer of
loads may be difficult.

•A folded plate may be used for walls as a thin structural element

by casting each plate flat on the floor and grouting the joints full of
concrete.

•A wall of this type can be made much thinner than a flat wall.
EDGE SUPPORTED FOLDED PLATES:

•The usual upturned edge plate can be eliminated and the roof
structure can be made to appear very thin if the edge plate is
replaced by a series of columns.

•The slab between columns must be designed as a beam and it may

be convenient to extend the main roof slab as a cantilever canopy.

•The vertical columns in the end walls at the crown of the gable
takes the reactions of the plates and the horizontal ties may be
eliminated.

•Wind loads are taken by rigid frame action in the columns and
stiffeners.
FOLDED PLATE TRUSS:

• There are horizontal ties across the width only at the ends of the
building and the structure acts as an edge supported shell.

•The thrusts from the triangular crossed arches are carried

lengthwise to the ends.

•The top chord of the inclined truss is formed by the ridge member.

•The bottom chords are the ties at the base of the side gables and
the diagonals are formed by the sloping valleys at the intersection
of the gables and the triangular plates.

•The top longitudinal compression member may require some

additional thickness to form a compression member of sufficient
size to carry the compression force.

•This is truly a space structure and its structural action is not as

obvious and, therefore, the architectural appearance is more subtle
than the usual shell structure.
FOLDED PLATE RIGID FRAME:

•An arch with straight segments is sometimes called a rigid frame.

• It is not as efficient as the curved arch because the bending

moments are greater.

•Ties across the plates are required at the knees and at the crown
in order to distribute the forces at the ends of each segment.
CYLINDRICAL BARREL VAULTS:
•Barrel vaults are perhaps the most useful of the shell structures
because they can span upto 150 feet with a minimum of material.

•They are very efficient structures because the use the arch forms
to reduce stresses and thicknesses in the transverse direction.

•Barrel vaults are essentially deep concrete beams with very thin
web members and may be designed as such by the ordinary
methods of reinforced concrete.
ELEMENTS OF BARREL VAULTS:

•The shell has been allowed to project beyond the edge of the
stiffener in order to show the shape of the shell.

•Stiffeners are required at columns.

•In contrast to folded plates where the thickness is based on the

design of a slab element, the thickness of the barrel shell is usually
based on the minimum thickness required for covering the steel for
fireproofing, plus the space required for three layers of bars, plus
some space for tolerance.

•Near the supports the thickness may be greater for containing the
larger longitudinal bars.

•If more than one barrel is placed side by side, the structure is a
multiple barrel structure and if more than one span, it is called a
multiple span structure.
MULTIPLE BARRELS - OUTSIDE STIFFENERS:

•This structure shows a multiple barrel vault with vertical edge

beams at the outside edges.

•The stiffeners have been place above the roof.

•The advantage of having the stiffeners on top is that there are no

interruptions to the space inside the shell so both the inside
appearance and the utility are better.

•The maximum spans for this type shell are again limited by the
geometry of the cross section.

•Assuming the maximum width of barrel to be 50 feet and

maximum end slope to be 45 degrees, the rise would be about 14
feet; the maximum span would be in the order of 150 feet.
UNSTIFFENED EDGES:

•The thin unstiffened edge of a barrel vault is very dramatic but is

subject to considerable deflection if made too thin or used on too
long a span.

•Also, more longitudinal steel is required because the downward

deflection of the free edge tends to throw more loads into the
reinforcing.

•An elliptical cross section is superior to a circular section at an

unstiffened edge because of the greater curvature of the ellipse,
making the shell stiffer at the lower edge.

•The shell with a complete half circle will be more rigid than one
with only a segment of a circle.
CORRUGATED CURVES:

•Barrel shells in the form of corrugations may offer structural

advantages and may have aesthetic values which make such a roof
desirable.

•Instead of alternative concave and convex circles of the same

radius, the curves may be alternate circles of long and short radius.

THE LAZY S:

•The combination of concave and convex shapes increases the

effective depth over the depth furnished by a single barrel.

•The edges are unstiffened but if they have considerable curvature,

the stresses can be satisfactory.

•However, spans should be kept fairly short to reduce both

deflections and stresses.

•The design of graceful stiffening members to support these shells

is difficult because the shell does not conform to the shape of either
a beam or an arch and is unfamiliar to the eye.
EDGE MEMBERS:

•The reason for using edge beams is that if a long span is required,
say 100 feet or more, the depth of the shell would have to be at
least 10 feet, and for a normal column spacing of 20 feet, a full
half cylinder having vertical slopes at the edges of the shell would
be necessary.

•Concrete is difficult to place, and, therefore, edge beams should be

provided so the radius of the shell is greater and the slope at the
top of the edge is not more than 40 degrees.

NORTH LIGHT SHELLS

•This type of shell structure is used to provide large areas of north

light windows for factories requiring excellent natural lighting.

•The edge member at the bottom forms a drainage trough with the
curved shell and materially assists in stiffening the structure.

•The edges of adjacent shells should be tied together by concrete

struts serving as mullions between the window glazing.
BUTTERFLY SHELLS:

•Cylindrical shell vaults can be constructed with partial segments

of arches, arranged in the form of a Y and called a butterfly roof.

•This shape is often used for canopies for buildings with skylights
and for railroad station platform covering.

•At the ends of this building, a complete stiffening truss is used to

tie the shells together.

•Spans for this type of structure must be quire short in comparison

to other barrel.
VAULTS WITHOUT STIFFENERS:

•Stiffeners on barrel shell vaults are expensive to build and

interfere with the interior space if ties are used below the shell.

•It is possible to eliminate, or to greatly reduce the size of the

stiffeners if the thrusts form the shells are taken by the columns.

•The total force at an interior column is counterbalanced by the

thrust of the shells on each side, but the first outside column must
take all of the thrust of a shell.

•The high thrust at the top of the column must be resisted, in turn,
by large footings.
EDGE SUPPORTED SHELLS:

•The stresses and deflections in single barrel vaults (or end bays of
multiple vaults) may be reduced by using columns or walls to
support the edges.

•This makes it possible to design a single barrel shell for a large

auditorium or gymnasium without using intermediate stiffeners.

•Most of the load is carried to the end stiffeners and columns.

•The intermediate columns merely act as a vertical support and do

not carry lateral load.
SHORT SHELLS:
•This structure is a cylindrical shell having a large radius in
comparison to the length.

•The two types of shells have uses which are altogether different
and the architectural and engineering problems require a different
approach.

•In structures making use of the short shell, the principle

structural element is the stiffener, usually a reinforced concrete
arch, although steel arches or trusses have been used.

•Many structures built with short shells, such a large hangars and
auditoriums, could have been built with little more dead load by
using a ribbed slab or other lightweight concrete framing system
rather than the shell.
BASIC ELEMENTS OF SHORT SHELLS:

1)the shell spanning between arches, and

2) the arch structure. In this structure, the edge beams are

provided at the lowest point of the shell and the arch is placed on
top of the shell so that forms may be moved through the barrel.

In small structures, the edge beam can be omitted if the shell is

thickened.

PURE ARCH AND SHELL:

•The classic simplicity of this structure may be used with startling

effect.

•There are only two structural elements and these are clearly
expressed so that their function is evident.
MASSIVE ABUTMENTS:

•The abutments to the arch in this structure have been made in the
form of an inverted U rigid frame.

•Instead of the U frame, which is subjected to very heavy bending

moments, a triangular frame may be used with the apex at the
springing of the arch.

•The structural members of this abutment can be quite thin

because they follow the thrust line of the forces better than does
the U frame.
RIGID FRAMES:

•Short shells may be used with concrete rigid frames as the

principle structural element.

•The rigid frame without a horizontal tie at the low point of the
shell is suitable only for short spans because of the massive
proportions required for the knees.

•It is not necessary to have the spans of all the rigid frames equal,
and the bending moments in the frames may be reduced if shorter
side spans are used.

•Rigid frames are usually built with tie rods connecting the base of
the columns, especially if soil conditions will not permit lateral
loads on the soil material.
CANTILEVER ABUTMENTS:

•The span of the arch may be reduced and the depth and thickness
may be made smaller if the support of the arch is placed at the end
of a beam cantilever from the wall of the building.

•This design provides space under the cantilevers for seating by

using area that would otherwise be required for the arch ribs.

•The design of this structure requires a balance between the height

of the arch and the span so the thrust line will be located in the
optimum position.

•This structure is most suitable for a large monumental auditorium

structure.
DOMES OF REVOLUTION:
•A dome is a space structure covering a more or less square or
circular area.

•They are formed by a surface generated by a curve of any form

revolving about a vertical line.

•This surface has double curvature and the resulting structure is

much stiffer and stronger than a single curved surface, such as a
cylindrical shell.

•The simple dome of revolution is a portion of a sphere.

•However, other curves are also satisfactory, such as the ellipse, the
parabola, other conic sections, or random curves.
SPHERE SEGMENT - COLUMN SUPPORTS:

•If a dome is built as less than a half sphere, a tension ring of steel
bars, plates, or wires is required at the base to carry the thrusts of
the shell.

•In this case, the ring has been made big enough so that it assists in
distributing the reaction of the columns into the dome.

•The direct stresses in the shell are mostly compressive in this

structure and are so small that the stress calculations are hardly
necessary.

•Domes have been built with a thickness of 6 inches for a span of

about 300 feet.

HALF SPHERE - VERTICAL WALLS:

•A half sphere for a dome of revolution does not require a thrust

ring at the base so it can be placed on vertical walls and made
continuous with the walls.

•This design is used for tanks because the roof becomes a part of
the tank.
DOMES - SQUARE IN PLAN:

•This structure is a spherical dome with portions sliced off to form

a square or rectangle.

•This dome is supported by four rigid frames and would only be

suitable for small spans because the frames would get quite large.

•For long spans, it is necessary to place a tie between the knees of

the frame.

•Stresses in the shell are direct compression (membrane) stresses

except across the corner where there are direct tensile forces due
to the outward spread of the forces.
MULTIPLE DOMES:

•In this example the dome is rectangular and is continuous with

the adjacent domes.

•The edges of the dome are supported by tied arches or bowstring

trusses.

•This shell can be classed as a dome of revolution since the shell is

part of a sphere (which is a surface of revolution).

•In constructing this shell, each one of the dome elements is an

independent structural unit so the forms may be moved without
shoring all or part of the dome already cast.
TRANSLATION DOMES:

•This structure looks very much like the Square Dome except the
shape is generated by an entirely different method.

•A translation shell is generated by a vertical curve sliding along

another vertical curve.

•The curves can be circles, ellipses, or parabolas.

•Most of the load is carried by the side arches with some coming
directly to the corners.

•Such shells are suitable for quite long spans with some interior
lighting furnished by skylights in the shell.

•Barrel shells, folded plates, and shell arches are all special cases of
translation shells.
FOLDED PLATE DOMES:
•In this category are included all domes made with plane slabs and
plates.

•Domes may be constructed with small angles between the plates

or with large angles between plates and the structural action may
be considerably different for each type.

•The obvious advantage of the folded plate dome is that the

surfaces are easier to form because they are flat.

•For slab spans over 16 ft., the shell wall is thicker than a curved
surface because bending must be considered.

•The acoustical properties of a structure with plane surfaces are

much better since the sound rays do not come to focus.
FOLDED PLATE DOME - SQUARE IN PLAN:

•The simplest arrangement of folded plate elements is the square

dome.

•The spans of the column centres are limited by the span of the
triangular slab which would get very thick and heavy if the spans
are large.

•At the outside edges, a member is required, as in the usual folded

plate structure.

FOLDED PLATE DOME - TAPERED ELEMENTS:

•This dome makes use of tapered folded plates slanting to the

centre in the form of a tent.

•It can be built so that each of the triangular elements is self-

supporting during construction except for possibly a single shore
at the crown.

•The forms, therefore, can be re-used many times in contrast to the

usual dome structure.
MULTI-FACET DOME:

•Domes may be constructed with many planes so they resemble the

facets of a diamond.

•The structural problem in designing these shells is to provide

enough angle between the planes so that an actual rib is formed
which will be stiff enough to support the plane surface.

•A dome hexagonal in plan can be made continuous with all the

adjacent units if it is necessary to cover a large area.
INTERSECTION SHELLS:
•The surfaces that produce the shell appear to meet at an
intersection that is why they are called “intersection shells”.

•Any of the basic types may be used in this manner but the barrel
shell is the most familiar and useful.

•The structural efficiency of the intersection shell depends on the

angle of the intersection of the surfaces.

•If the angle is small then a natural rib is formed by the adjacent
elements of the basic shells which is much stiffer than the adjacent
shells on each side.

•An intersection for which the angle is very large is called here a
shallow intersection.
INTERSECTION SHELL - SQUARE IN PLAN SHALLOW
INTERSECTION:

•This structure is a dome formed by using triangular pieces of a

cylindrical shell arranged in the form of a square.

•The word "shallow" has been used to indicate that the angle
between the components is rather small, especially if the rise of the
shell is small.

•It is the best type of dome to cover a square area and maintain a
level parapet around the building.

•Loads are carried by the cross ribs formed by the intersection and
by the stiffening element created by the edge beam.

•The bottom of the shell requires tensile reinforcement as in a short

shell.
INTERSECTION - POLYGONAL PLAN, SHALLOW INTERSECTION:

•This form is suitable for a dome of large span which must be

nearly circular in plan.

•If more than six sides are used, the rib formed by the shell gets
rather shallow so a rib is added above the shell surface.

•This would be suitable only for a small structure since it produces

additional bending in the lowest part of the shell.

GROINED VAULT - SQUARE IN PLAN:

•The groined vault is an intersection shell composed of four

triangular pieces of cylindrical shells, arranged in a cross form so
that there are arches on each of the sides.

•The usual vault is a continuous structure.

GROINED VAULT - POLYGONAL PLAN:

•This structure is similar to the previous groined vault, square in

plan, except that there are five triangular cylindrical elements
instead of four.

•An excellent structural rib is formed by the intersection.

•Arched stiffening ribs are required around the outside of the

structure and these ribs exert thrusts at their abutments.

•If six sides are used, a continuous series of shells may be

constructed and units of this type could alternate with those
having a shallow intersection.
INTERSECTION SHELL - CROSS FORM:

•Four cylindrical barrels intersect to form a central dome.

•The structure is supported by four columns at the corners of the

intersection so that part of the barrel cantilevers from the central
dome.

•Provision must be made for thrusts from the barrels and the
central dome at the column.

There are several alternates:

•the columns may be made very heavy,
2) short lengths of walls in an angle shape may be used at the
corners instead of individual columns,
3) diagonal members may be placed in each of the walls, or
4) ties may be place between tops of columns.

•The architectural advantage of this structure is that it appears to

float in the air.
INTERSECTION SHELL - FOLDED PLATE:

•Almost all the combinations used for curved shells may be used
for folded plates, the resulting forms are almost unlimited.

•The columns may be place so that there is no column at the corner

and the central dome is suspended from four cantilevers.

•However, it is better to put the column in the corner so that the

central intersection may be used as the stiffening element.
WARPED SURFACES:
•Warped surfaces have a great advantage for shell structures
because they may be formed from straight form boards even
though they are surfaces of double curvature.

•There are two types which are most useful:

•The conoid, which, as its name suggests, is a portion of a cone, and

•The hyperbolic paraboloid, a name for a particular mathematical

surface.

•Stresses in the hyperbolic paraboloid shell are almost entirely

membrane (direct tension and compression), and all forces are
delivered as shear parallel to the stiffening ribs.
CONOID:

•A conoidal surface, is formed by drawing straight lines between a

curve such as a circle and a straight line.

•It is a ruled surface because it can be formed by straight lines

•This structure is suitable for a large entrance canopy.

HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDAL SURFACE:

The hyperbolic paraboloid surface is so useful for shell structures

that it is important to describe the method of constructing the
surface. It is formed in the following manner:
1)Lines OA and OB are level and at right angles to each other,
2) Lines AC and C are also level and are shown above and dotted,
3) Point C* is directly below point C,
4) Mark off equal intervals on line OB and divide line AC* into the
same number of increments (but of slightly greater length).
Connect intervals on line OB with those on line AC* with straight
lines,
5) Repeat for OA and BC*,
6) The surface formed by this network is a hyperbolic paraboloidal
surface.
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID - GABLED EDGE MEMBERS:

•Four rectangular units of the surface are used with this structure
and are supported by gabled rigid frames at the outside edges.

•The ridges at the top, formed by the intersection of the surfaces,

are also edge members of the individual panels

•The stresses in this shell, if the rise of the shell is low in

comparison to the span, are direct tension across the diagonals
which sag, and direct compression across diagonals which are
arched.

UMBRELLA SHELLS:

•Four of the rectangular hyperbolic paraboloidal surfaces may be

arranged so that the outer edge of the shell is level and the low
point is at the centre where it is supported by a column.

•These shells may be diamond shaped in plan rather than

rectangular.
HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOIDAL SADDLE DOME:

•Dome shaped structures of large span may be made from

combinations of hyperbolic paraboloids.

•They may be square, rectangular, or diamond shaped.

•The shell depends for its strength on one of the corners being
raised relative to the others.

HP FLOWER DOME:

•This structure is called a flower dome as being the best description

of the appearance.

•It consists of four of the hyperbolic paraboloid dome units with

the highest point at the middle.

•However, the lower outside edges and stiffeners have been

trimmed in a circle so the units resemble petals of a flower, and the
structure is circular in plan.
STEEP HYPERBOLIC PARABOLOID:

•This type of warped surface shell utilizes steeply pitched surfaces.

•Each panel is arranged so that one corner is out of the plane of the
other three corners.

•Ribs are formed between adjacent units and additional ribs are
required at the outer edges of the structure.

TRUMPET SHELL:

•Hyperbolic paraboloids may be formed by using portions of the

basic surface.

•The edges are parabolic arches and all the forming is made with
straight lines running from eqi-distant points on parabolas.

•The arch rib at the ends must be of sufficient strength to carry the
principle loads.

•On account of its double curvature, this shell may be made much
less thick than the equivalent short shell.
THE GROINED VAULT:

•A vault can be constructed from parts of four trumpet shells.

•It may be built without ribs because the curvature of the edges
makes the shell sufficiently stiffer and the intersection of the
surfaces creates two rigid crossed arches which carry the loads to
the supports.

•Again, this structure is formed with straight lines even though

there is considerable curvature to the final surface.
COMBINATIONS OF SHELLS:
•Combinations of shells are useful and lend variety to the other
shapes and forms.

The number of combinations is practically unlimited.

The combinations possible are:

1)barrel shells and folded plates,

2) barrel shells and short shells,
3) barrel shells and domes of revolution,
4) barrel shells and conoids,
5) folded plates and short shells,
6) folded plates and domes of revolution,
7) folded plates and conoids,
8) short shells and domes of revolution,
9) short shells and conoids, and
10) domes of revolution and conoids.
DOME AND BARREL VAULT:

•The side of the square dome suggests the shape of a barrel vault.

•These are really independent structures since the structural

elements are all formed before the attachment has been made and
could be cut apart without destroying the structure.

•Vaults can be attached to any of the four sides to produce a T

shape or a cross shaped building and the wings may be of various
lengths.

•The ties across the sides of the dome can be eliminated by L

shaped walls acting as thrust abutments.
FOLDED PLATE AND BARREL VAULT:

•In this structure, a folded plate structure is combined with a

barrel vault.

•For the same width of element, the transverse bending moments in

the folded plates are usually larger than the barrel vault so it is
important to keep the width of the plates so the slab will not be
thick.

•The form is not especially suitable for long spans since the
structural efficiency of the folded plate is not very great.

FOLDED PLATE AND CONE

•The cone on the ends of the folded plate finishes off an otherwise
angular structure with a curved façade and might have some
architectural applications where a bay window effect is required.

•The cone can hardly be said to have enough stiffness to replace

the rib that is otherwise required at the columns.

•This cone acts like a curved folded plate rather than as a dome.
BARREL SHELL - DOMED ENDS:

•Tapered ends have the advantage that the eave line can be kept
the same all around the building.

•Less material is required because the stiffener is in domed ends.

•The amount of formwork is probably less but the forms cannot be

moved lengthwise of the shell and must be lowered the full depth
of the barrel.

•A plane surface can be used instead of the curve at the end.

FOLDED PLATE - TAPERED ENDS:

•This structure is a combination of a folded plate and a folded plate

dome.

•The taper acts as a stiffener and transfers the thrust of the inclined
plates to the columns.

•It has many of the same advantages and disadvantages of the

barrel shell with dome ends.
SPACE ACTION OF ARCHES AND VAULTS:

•This structure consists of two intersection shell domes made from

parts of cones.

•The edges of the domes are supported by ribs acting as arches.

•The thrusts from these arches are transferred to horizontal girders

which, in turn, carry the load to horizontal ties at each end of the
building.

•The horizontal girders also serve as slabs over the side aisles. Two
rows of columns are required to support each of these slabs.
SHELL SLAB:

•This structure is a combination of a dome of revolution and a

plate.

•The low rise dome in the centre of an otherwise orthodox flat

plate will have shell action at the centre of the pane; and plate
action along the column lines.

•The reduction in concrete should result in smaller column sizes

for multi-storey buildings.

•The thickness of the plate at the columns can be made greater

than for the ordinary flat plate structure.
BARREL AND SLAB:

•This shell is a combination of a barrel shell and a slab.

•The slab must be of sufficient thickness to carry the required

bending moment and shear at the end of the span.

•The small columns shown on the outside edges are for support of
the edges only; otherwise, there are no inside columns for this
structure.

FOLDED PLATE AND SLAB:

•It is intended in this structure to have a centre row of columns so

that the greatest depth is at the point of maximum moment and the
shear and bending moment at the outside edges are low.

•A stiffener will be required at the centre row of columns.

•However, the slab acts as its own stiffener.

•The slab thickness might be somewhat thicker than the shell but
as soon as the total depth of the shell became sufficient to resist the
stresses, the thickness could be reduced.
SHELL ARCHES:
•Folded plates and cylindrical barrel shells are essentially beams.

•The same cross sectional shapes can be used for arches and a new
set of forms, having different structural properties, is obtained.

•There are types of shells that fit in several categories.

•The hyperbolic paraboloidal dome is really a shell arch.

FOLDED PLATE ARCH:

•This structure is suitable for quite long spans and forms for the
concrete can be used many times because each unit can be made
self-supporting.

•All of the different section shapes of folded plates are possible

with this type of structure.

•As in the folded plate shapes, an edge plate is required for the
outside member.

•Placing of concrete on the steep slope at the springing of the

arches may be a problem unless blown-on concrete is used or the
lower portion of the shell may be precast on the ground and lifted
into place.
BARREL ARCH:

•This shape is similar to the folded plate shell arch except that
cross sectional elements are curved instead of being made with
plane surfaces.

•The surface is more difficult to form but the widths of the

individual elements may be made greater than for the folded plate
shape.

•Arches of very long span are possible because the bending

moments in an arch are much less than in a beam of comparable
span.