Chapter 2

Meteorology
Meteorology
 The science related to atmosphere.

Why ????? Its Knowledge is necessary

 Estimation of Probable maximum precipitation
 Optimum Snowmelt Conditions
 Design of various hydraulic structures.
Hydrologist should knows!!!!!!!!!!!!
 Regional climate.
 Meteorological process.
Definitions of some common terms!!!!!!
1. Atmosphere
 The gaseous envelope around the earth.
 99% of atmosphere lies within 19 miles from
of earth’s surface.
 Shields surface inhabitants from dangerous
radiant energy (e.g. ultraviolet from sun)
Atmosphere Contains?????
 Dry Air
 Water Vapors
 Various kinds of salts and dusts.
Is it Possible!!!!!!
The total amount of dry air and water vapors
would be over 5,600 billion tons and about 146
billion tons, respectively.

If all the water vapors present in the atmosphere

are imagined to condense and fall uniformly over
the earth, it will accumulate to a depth of 25 mm.
2. Troposphere
 It is the zone of atmosphere adjacent to earth.
 It extends approximately up to seven miles
above sea level.
 Almost 100 % of the total moisture contents of
the atmosphere are present in this zone.
 there is comparatively high temperature
gradient in this part of atmosphere.
 Vapor Pressure
 It is the pressure exerted by the amount of
water vapors present in the atmosphere.
 It is usually denoted by “e” or “ea” and
expressed in millibars, pascals (Pa) or Kilo-
Pascals (KPa) (1 millibar = 100 Pascals)
 A Millibar is defined as the pressure exerted
by a force of one thousand dynes on one square
cm surface.
1.33 millibar = 1 mm of Hg.
Continued…
 The bar (symbol bar), decibar (symbol dbar)
and the millibar (symbol mbar, also mb) are
units of pressure. They are not SI units, nor are
they cgs units, but they are accepted for use
with the SI. The bar is widely used in
descriptions of pressure because it is about the
same as atmospheric pressure, and is legally
recognized in countries of the European Union
 The bar, decibar and millibar are defined as:
 1 bar = 100 kPa (kilopascals) = 1,000,000
dynes per square centimeter (baryes)
 1 dbar = 0.1 bar = 10 kPa = 100,000 dyn/cm²
 1 mbar = 0.001 bar = 0.1 kPa = 1 hPa = 1,000
dyn/cm²
 (A pascal is one newton per square meter.)
 Vapor Pressure
 Since the temperature of water vapor is the
same as that of the air in the atmosphere, the
maximum amount of water vapor may be said
to depend on the air temperature.
 The higher the temperature, the more vapor
can the atmospheric air hold. (Lifting
Mechanism)
 Saturation Vapor Pressure
 When a sample of air holds the maximum
quantity of water vapors at a particular
temperature it is said to be saturated.
 The pressure exerted by water vapors, when
the air is fully saturated with water vapors, is
known as the saturation vapor pressure.
 It is denoted by ‘es’.
 Saturation Vapor Pressure
 In warm air, the molecules are moving fast, so
they collide and readily bounce off each other,
making it difficult for them to stick together.
 In cold air, the molecules are moving slow,
making it easier for them to stick together when
they collide.
 Therefore, saturation vapor pressure is
dependent on the air temperature, with cold air
being able to hold less water vapor before
becoming saturated (lower saturation vapor
pressure) than warm air
 Isobars
 These are the lines joining points of same
atmospheric pressure at a given elevation.
 The horizontal distribution of pressure is
generally shown on weather charts by isobars.
 The spacing between isobars is a measure of
the pressure gradient.
 In atmospheric sciences (meteorology,
climatology and related fields), the pressure
gradient (typically of air, more generally of
any fluid) is a physical quantity that describes
in which direction and at what rate the
pressure changes the most rapidly around a
particular location. The pressure gradient is a
dimensional quantity expressed in units of
pressure per unit length. The SI unit is pascal
per metre (Pa/m).
 Relative Humidity & Dew Point
 The relation between temperature and saturation
vapor pressure is shown in Figure 2.1. Suppose that a
parcel of air has a temperature ‘T’ and vapor pressure
‘e’ indicated by point ‘D’ in the Fig.
 If more vapor were added at constant temperature ‘T’
point ‘D’ would move vertically upward towards ‘B’
and the air would be saturated when ‘B’ is reached
and the corresponding saturation vapor pressure
would be ‘es’.

Continued…
 Relative Humidity & Dew Point
 The difference, es - e = Saturation deficit and
the relation
 (e / es) x 100=Relative humidity- - - Eq. 2.1
 When the air is cooled at a constant
atmospheric pressure, the temperature at which
air becomes saturated is called Dew Point i.e.
the point ‘D’ will come to point ‘C’ in figure
2.1.

Continued…
Relative Humidity & Dew Point

35

30

25 B
Saturation Vapor Pressure (mm Hg)

20

15

10
. D(t, e)
C
5 D
0

-10 0 10 20 30 40

Temperature °C

Fig 2.1 Saturation Vapor Pressure of Water in Air Continued…

Relative Humidity & Dew Point

 The relative humidity is the ratio of actual

vapor pressure at certain temperature and
the saturation vapor pressure. Thus the
relative humidity is 100 percent when the
air is saturated.
 If the parcel of air is cooled at constant
pressure ‘e’ and without addition of vapor,
the point ‘D’ would move horizontally
towards ‘C’.
Continued…
 Relative Humidity & Dew Point
 The air would be saturated when ‘C’ is reached
and the corresponding temperature ‘Ta’ is the
Dew point.
 The dew point is thus the temperature at which
water vapor present in the atmosphere will
condense if the air is cooled.
Measurement of Relative Humidity
 The instruments used for measurements of
relative humidity are:
 Psychrometer
 Hair hygrometer

 Hygrograph

 Thermo-hygrograph

Continued…
 Measurement of Relative Humidity
 Psychrometer consists of two thermometers - Dry
bulb thermometer and Wet bulb thermometer. The
mercury bulb of wet bulb thermometer is covered by a
jacket of clean muslin cloth saturated with water.
 This is done by putting a beaker with distilled water
underneath so that the bulb is not submerged in water
but only the cloth.
 Then water rises due to capillary action. The
thermometers are ventilated by whirling or by use of a
fan. As a result of evaporation cooling takes place.
Readings are taken on both the thermometers
simultaneously.
Continued…
Measurement of Relative Humidity
 The dry bulb reading is denoted as Td and wet
bulb reading as Tw. The difference of these
two temperatures is called the wet bulb
depression.
i.e. Td-Tw=Wet bulb depression- - - Eq. 2.2
 Using these readings, the relative humidity can
be found from the psychrometer tables.

Continued…
 Measurement of Relative Humidity
 The value of ‘e’ for air temperature‘t’ may be
obtained by the relation:
( es – e ) = γ ( T - Tw ) - - - - - - - - - - - - -Eq. 2.3
or
e = es – γ ( T - Tw ) - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Eq. 2.4
 Where γ = psychrometer constant and its value is
0.660 when ‘e’ is measured in millibar units and
0.485 when it is measured in units of ‘mm of Hg’.

Continued…
Measurement of Relative Humidity
 Example 2.1 :
Given the air temperature as Ta = 24°C and the
wet bulb temperature Tw = 21°C. Find relative
humidity and dew point.

Continued…
 Measurement of Relative Humidity
Solution
From Equation 2.2
Wet bulb depression = 24° - 21° = 3° C.
From table A-1, Appendix-A, we get,
For Ta = 24°C, es = 22.27 mm of Hg
For Tw = 21°C ew = 18.65 mm of Hg
Therefore Equation 2.4 yields,
e = 18.65-0.485(3) = 17.20 mm of Hg
Relative humidity = [ 17.20 / 22.27 ] x 100 = 77 %
 And the dew point is the temperature read from Table
A-1 of Appendix-A corresponding to ‘e’ which is
19.7°C

Continued…
Measurement of Relative Humidity
 The hair hygrometer consists of a frame in
which a strand of hair is kept at approximately
constant tension.
 Changes in length of the hair corresponding to
changes in relative humidity are transmitted to
a pointer.
 This instrument is seldom used for
meteorological purposes, but it is an
inexpensive humidity indicator and is often
found in homes and offices.
Continued…
Measurement of Relative Humidity
 The hair hygrograph is essentially a hair
hygrometer, but is automatic recording
instrument.
 The movement of hair activates a pen, which
records on a rotating drum.
 The hygrothermograph combines the
registration of both relative humidity and
temperature on one record sheet.
 Solar Radiation
 The only source of heat energy for earth
system is the sun. Whatever heat is received
by earth or reflected is the solar energy.
 Depending upon the shape, rotation, angle of
inclination of earth, it is visualized that solar
energy received by earth is changing from
time to time and point to point.

Continued…
 Solar Radiation
 The solar radiation comes to the earth in the form of a
high temperature radiation. A part of this radiation
may be intercepted by the clouds but most of it is
reflected back into space.
 The fraction of the total incoming radiation which is
reflected back by the earth is called albedo.
 Under average conditions, the albedo of the earth as a
whole is about 40%, of the remaining 60% a small
part is absorbed in the atmosphere but the bulk is
absorbed in the earth surface.

Continued…
 Solar Radiation
 Solar energy received by sun is the maximum
at the equator and decreases pole-wards. The
variations in solar energy are the following:
 Diurnal Variation
 Seasonal Variation
 Regional Variation.

Continued…
 Solar Radiation
 The units for radiation flux per unit area are either
joules per square centimeters or milliwatt hours per
square centimeter.
 In some countries calories per square centimeters is
designated as Langley and the corresponding unit of
radiation flux is Langley per minute.
 The intensity of direct solar radiation at normal
incidence is measured with an instrument called a
Pyrheliometer.

Continued…
 Solar Radiation
 The principal exposure requirements of this
instrument are that it should be free from
obstructions to the solar beam at all times of
day and seasons of the year.
 The site should be chosen so that the incidence
of fog, smoke and air-borne pollution is as less
as possible in that area.

Continued…
 Temperature
 The degree of hotness or coldness is called the
temperature. Its units of measurement are
Degree Centigrade (°C ) or Degree Fahrenheit
(°F ).
 Temperature Variation
 There are three types of temperature variations.
 Daily Variation of Temperature
 Seasonal Variation
 Regional Variation of Temperature

Continued…
 Temperature

 Daily Variation of Temperature

 The daily variation of temperature is dependent on the
elevation of the sun, the cloud cover and the wind speed.
 The variation of temperature is large in low latitudes and
small in high latitudes, with the result that the daily
variation decreases from equator towards poles.
 The clouds reduce the radiations coming down during the
day and outgoing radiations during the night. On a cloudy
day, the maximum temperature is lower and the minimum
temperature higher than on normal bright days.
 On windy days the temperature on ground surface is lower
than on calm days, because the greater mobility of air along
the vertical axis results in greater heat exchange with the
upper atmospheric layers.
Continued…
 Temperature

 Seasonal Variation
 The seasonal variation in rainfall and wind also
affect the temperature.
 During the rainy season, the cloud cover is
large with the result that less radiation is
received by the earth.
 Annual migration of vast masses of air also
brings about horizontal heat exchange and thus
affects the annual range of temperature
variation. Continued…
 Temperature
 Regional Variation of Temperature
 Since the amount of net radiation decreases with
increasing latitude, the temperature tends to be
highest at the equator and decreases towards the
poles.
 Measurement of Temperature

 The temperature is measured with the help of

thermometers. There are two types of thermometers -
Maximum thermometer (Mercury Type thermometer) and
Minimum Thermometer (Alcoholic type thermometer).
 In order to measure the air temperature properly,
thermometers must be placed where air circulation is
relatively unobstructed and yet they must be protected
from the direct sunrays and from precipitation.
 Therefore thermometers are placed in white, louvered,
wooden boxes, called instrument shelters. These shelters
are set about 4.5 feet above the ground. The readings are
taken at 8.00 a.m. and 5.00 p.m.
Continued…
 Measurement of Temperature
 Four commonly used terms of temperature are:
 Mean Daily Temperature
 Normal Daily Temperature
 Mean Monthly Temperature
 Mean Annual Temperature

Continued…
 Measurement of Temperature
 Mean Daily Temperature
 It is the average of maximum and minimum
temperatures during the past 24 hours.
 Normal Daily Temperature
 It is the average daily mean temperature for a
given day over the past 30-years period i. e. it is
the mean temperature for a specific day

Continued…
 Measurement of Temperature
 Mean Monthly Temperature
 It is the average of the mean monthly maximum
and minimum temperatures or it is the mean
temperature of the mean daily temperatures during
the month.
 Mean Annual Temperature
 It is the mean temperature of 12 months.
 Lapse Rate
 The lapse rate or vertical temperature gradient is
defined as the change in temperature per unit distance
in the vertical direction from the Earth surface.
 The average value of the lapse rate is 3.6oF per
1,000ft (304.8 m).
 The greatest variation in lapse rate is found in the
layer of air just above the land surface. The lapse
rates are of three types depending upon the type of
water vapors.
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 Pseudo-Adiabatic Lapse Rate

Continued…
 Lapse Rate
 Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 It is the rate of change of temperature when air is
not fully saturated with water vapors.
 The average value of this is 17.71oF per 1,000m.

Continued…
 Lapse Rate
 Wet (Saturated) Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 When air is fully saturated, then rate of change of
temperature is called wet adiabatic, lapse rate.
 Its average value is 9.84oF per 1,000 m.

Continued…
 Lapse Rate
 Pseudo-Adiabatic Lapse Rate
 After condensed particles have fallen down fully,
as after a rainfall, then the rate of change of
temperature is called pseudo-adiabatic lapse rate.
 Its average value is also 9.84oF per 1,000m.

Continued…
 Lapse Rate
 Example 2.2
 A parcel of air has a temperature of 50°F on
surface of the earth. At a height of 2,000 m the air
becomes saturated. Rainfall occurs and air again
becomes dry on the leeward side of a mountain.
Find out temperature of this parcel of air, at an
altitude of 2,500 m on leeward side of the hill.
Height of hill is 3,000 m.

Continued…
 Lapse Rate
Solution:
Temperature at 2,000 m = 50 - ( 17.72x2000/1000)
= 50 – 35.44
= 14.56°F
Temperature at 3,000 m = 14.56 - ( 9.84x1000/1000 )
= 4.72°F
Temperature on the
leeward side at 2,500 m = 4.72+ (9.84 x500/1000)
= 9.64°F
Monsoon Systems of Pakistan
 Monsoon System in Pakistan
 In summer, when the land warms much faster than the
oceans an area of low pressures develops over land
and high pressure at sea.
 The reverse is the case during winter season.
Therefore, winds move from sea to land during
summer and from land to sea during winter. Winds
which undergo seasonal changes of direction in this
way are called monsoon winds.
 These winds, and for that matter any other wind
system are modified considerably when there exist
extensive mountain ranges.
Continued…
 Monsoon System in Pakistan
 In Winter over Indo-Pak Sub-continent and
central part of Asia (slightly towards eastern
shores of Asia) a ‘High’ is established.
 North easterly winds blow over most of the
eastern shores of Asia and India.
 These are called the North - Eest Monsoons.
These winds are cold and dry and thus give
fair weather to the area over which these blow.

Continued…
 Monsoon System in Pakistan
 In summer a ‘Low’ is established over North-West
part of Indo-Pak Sub continent due to heating of the
arid land-tracts while the air in the southern
hemisphere cools.
 Over India and Pakistan, the wind blows from
southwest and is known as South - West Monsoon.
 This is a very damp air as it originates from Indian
Ocean. It actually starts from the southern hemisphere
and after crossing the equator reaches the Sub-
continent as a southwesterly wind.

Continued…
 Monsoon System in Pakistan
 In Pakistan the summer monsoon sets in by
June, but its effect over the central areas and
the sub-mountain districts becomes well
pronounced by the third week of July.
 The monsoon remains effective over the area
till the end of September, sometime extending
to the second week of October.

Continued…
 Monsoon System in Pakistan
 Prior to the onset of monsoon, Pakistan is very dry
and the maximum temperature crosses 110oF over the
plains and the dew point temperature starts rising as
soon as the monsoon invades Pakistan.
 By the beginning of June, a “low” establishes over
Hyderabad, Khairpur, Multan and Sibi Divisions,
which to some extent, is responsible for the onset of
South-West monsoon over the sub-continent.
 The south-westerlies are predominant over the
southern areas of Pakistan.

Continued…
 Monsoon System in Pakistan
 The monsoon air requires lifting of 3 to 4
thousands feet to cause thunder showers.
There being no barrier of such a height for
these south-westerlies, the southern area of
Pakistan goes dry, though the monsoon current
remains active during June to September.
 Western Disturbances
 The western disturbances are important air masses,
for most of the winter season in Pakistan and
Northern India.
 Since these disturbances approach from the west, it is
for this reason that these are locally called western
disturbances.
 These originate from the Mediterranean Sea and
move in an easterly or north - easterly direction.
They have warm and cold fronts but by the time these
reach Pakistan, these are so diffused together that it is
difficult to distinguish them on surface synoptic
charts. However they can be identified on the upper-
air charts.
Continued…
 Western Disturbances
 During the winter these move at lower latitudes and
reach northern part of Pakistan, but in summer these
move in higher latitudes through Russian Turkistan.
 Some times these accentuate the monsoon
depressions in the summer and cause heavy rainfall in
the sub- mountain districts, such as Sialkot, Jhelum
and Rawalpindi.
 The effect of these disturbances is well pronounced
from December to March. Normally light rain or
drizzle is associated with them, but in case of active
disturbances, thundershower over northern and
central divisions of Pakistan may occur.

Continued…
 Western Disturbances

 The western disturbances also produce secondary

disturbance moving over the Persian Gulf and
over the Arabian Sea.
 The secondary wave also moves to Pakistan and
causes lot of weather over the entire Pakistan.
During Western Disturbances over Pakistan, the
winds are normally Westerlies or North-
Westerlies.
 Sometimes the secondary wave continues moving
in an easterly direction along the coast while the
primary is affecting Peshawar and D.I. Khan
Divisions.
Continued…
 Western Disturbances
 The following conclusions have been drawn
by the Pakistan Meteorology Department on
the basis of detailed study of synoptic
situations responsible for winter rainfall over
Pakistan.
 A western disturbances appearing over Turkey
takes about 7-8 days to reach Pakistan.

Continued…
 Western Disturbances
 A weak western disturbance does not cause any
rainfall over Pakistan. A weak western disturbance
has been defined as the one which has no closed
‘Low’ appearing over Turkey. For a well-marked
‘Low’ there are generally two closed isobars and
the lowest pressure reported is generally less than
1,010 Mb during December to February.

Continued…
 Western Disturbances
 The well-marked western disturbance causes fairly
widespread rain and also thunderstorms along the
frontline over Turkey and Iraq. This can be seen
about 5 to 7 days ahead. This type of circulation of
air mass is a forewarning for an approaching wet
spell over the northern divisions of Pakistan

Continued…
 Western Disturbances
 The winds over the Gulf of Oman become
southerly while over north Persian Gulf area
northerlies will be blowing. This is a strong
indication of secondary development over the Gulf
of Oman. Due to the peculiar orography of
northwest Pakistan, the cyclonic circulation further
increases. This results in moderately heavy to
heavy showers over the central and northern
divisions of Pakistan.
 Monsoon & Western Disturbances As
Cause Of Rainfall
 By the beginning of July, South Easterlies begin to
penetrate the central areas and sub-mountain districts
of Pakistan.
 The South-Easterlies are nothing, but the deflected
South-Westerlies, which take a turn westwards
parallel to the Himalayas from the Bay of Bengal.
 A depression is intensified when a warm pool exists
above it. It is also intensified by the interaction
between the disturbances of low latitudes and high
latitudes and also between disturbances of the two
hemispheres.
Continued…
 Monsoon & Western Disturbances As
Cause Of Rainfall
 Bay of Bengal tropical depressions (monsoon
depressions) form as a result of the confluence of
Southern air mass from the equatorial region and
South-Westerlies crossing the sub-continent from the
Arabian Sea.
 The South West monsoon air mass behaves as two
different types with the consequence that their
interrelation results in frontogenesis.
 There also exists a trough of low pressure, generally
called monsoon trough, which extends roughly from
Punjab in Pakistan, through Agra, Allahbad in India
to the Bay of Bengal.

Continued…
Monsoon & Western Disturbances As
Cause Of Rainfall

 When the axis of the monsoon trough moves

towards the Himalayas and lies there, the rain on
the plains decreases while that on the hills
increases.
 When the axis of the monsoon trough shifts to the
South, the entire of Pakistan comes under the
influences of homogeneous monsoon resulting in
a continuous type of rain drizzle.
 But occasionally heavy thundershowers do occur
over the sub-mountain districts and adjoining
areas of Kashmir due to orographic effect
(mountain barriers)
Continued…
 Monsoon & Western Disturbances As
Cause Of Rainfall
 The monsoon depressions travel
Westwards/North Westwards. Most of these
depressions dissipate within a few hundred
miles of their journey over the sub-continent.
 Those which are strong, reach as far as
Rajisthan and then start moving northwards.
This change in the direction of movement of
the depression is called “recurvature”.

Continued…
 Monsoon & Western Disturbances As
Cause Of Rainfall
 When the storm of depression recurves itself, it
receives good moisture supply from Arabian sea
resulting in heavy rainfall in Pakistan. Some
depressions which do not recurve, emerge into the
Arabian Sea and do not cause any rainfall.
 It must be noted that depressions cause lifting of air
mass and therefore are the main causative factors for
precipitation to occur.
 Higher and continuous lifting and hence continuous
precipitation occur when a depression is strengthened
by another depression.
Continued…
 Monsoon & Western Disturbances As
Cause Of Rainfall
 The three types of depressions in the Indo-Pak
Subcontinent are:
 Seasonal as a result of high summer temperature
corresponding to low temperature,
 Monsoon depression traveling from the Bay of Bengal, and
 Depression due to Western disturbance. When all the
depressions combine and there is a continuous supply of
moisture from the Arabian Sea there results very heavy
rainfall in the northern part of Pakistan
 Wind Measurement

 Wind speed is measured with an instrument called

Anemometer. This instrument gives continuous record
over some graph called Anemograph.
 A very well known Anemometer is Dynes Apparatus. It
gives reading in miles of total wind movement in
24 hours.
 Wind has both speed and direction. Wind direction is the
direction from which wind is blowing.
 Wind speed is usually given in miles per hour, meters per
second or knots.
1m/sec = 2.2 mph, and,
1 knot = 1-1/7 mph
Continued…
 Wind Measurement
 The graph between wind speed and elevation
is shown in figure 2.1.
 The equation of the curve is,
V/Vo = (  / Zo )1/7 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 2.5
 Where ‘V’ is wind speed at height ‘Z’ from
ground and ‘Vo’ is wind speed measured by the
anemometer at height ‘Z0’.

Continued…
 Wind Measurement

Velocity Ratio Against Elevation Ratio

8
7
6
5
(Z/Z0)

4
3
2
1
0
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

(V/V0)

Figure 2.1 Variation of Wind Velocity with Depth

Continued…
 Wind Measurement
 Example 2.3
 The speed of air at a height of 15 meter above
ground was measured as 10 m/s. Find the
speed at 2 m level.
Solution
From Equation 2.5
V2 / V15 = ( Z2 / Z15 )1/7 or
V2 = ( Z2 / Z15 )1/7 x V15
V2 = ( 2 / 15)1/7 x 10 = 7.5 m/s

Continued…
 Questions
 Define Meteorology. Why is it studied with subject of Hydrology?
 How Relative Humidity and Dew Point are related. Describe
instrument used for measurement of relative humidity.
 What is saturation vapor pressure? Can air saturate itself up to
100%.
 Define temperature. Explain variation in temperature with respect
to time.
 What is Lapse Rate? How does temperature changes with
altitude?
 What are monsoons, explain the mechanism of monsoon rainfalls
in Pakistan?
 Explain, what are the Western Disturbances?
 Why psychrometer constant is different when ‘e’ is measured in
different units.
 Why wind speed is measured. What is effect of wind on climate
changes in an area? Explain variation of wind velocity with
respect to altitude.
 Exercise
 A mass of air is having temperature of 26.9oC. The
Relative humidity of this mass of air is 71 %.
Determine Saturation Vapor pressure, Saturation
deficit, Actual Vapor Pressure, Dew Point and Wet-
bulb temperature.
 The dry bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature
are respectively 25oC and 15oC at a certain location.
Determine Dew-point Temperature, Relative
Humidity, Saturation Vapor Pressure and Actual
Vapor pressure.
 A mass of air is at temperature of 30oC and is having
relative humidity of 75 %. Determine the dew-point
temperature.
Continued…
 Exercise

 The wind has a speed of 9m/s at elevation of 10m

above ground and 10m/s at elevation of 15m above
ground. Determine the speed at height of 2m.
 A parcel of moist air at 45°F, initially at 152 m
mean sea level is forced to pass over a mountain
ridge of 2,134 m mean sea level and then descends
to its original level. Assuming that a lift of 762 m
produces saturation and precipitation, what is the
final temperature of the parcel?