Post Harvest Handling of Food

 Harvesting and Threshing

 Food Grain Drying

 In agriculture, postharvest handling is the stage of crop

production immediately following harvest, including
drying, cooling, cleaning, sorting, size reduction,
processing and packing.

 The instant a food crop is removed from the ground, or

separated from its parent plant, it begins to deteriorate.
 Post Harvest Handling of Food
 Methods of Threshing
 a). Manual Methods:
 Threshing the crop against a low height wall
 Threshing the crop by beating the sheaves against the side of a container

 Beating the crop with a flail on a threshing floor

 Threshing millet, sorghum, barely, and wheat by beating the stalks with
sticks

 Stripping of millet stalk by hand.

 b) Threshing with the help of Animals

 In some parts of Latin America and Africa wheat, barley and lentils are
threshed by ox and horse trampling
 By tractor
 Post Harvest Handling of Food
 Manual or Machine-Operated:
 A series of threshing machines, which are manual or
machine-operated have been developed in some developing
countries.

 To reduce the cost of import models, bicycle sprockets and a

chain have been substituted for gears, and bearings from a
bicycle pedal shaft have been used for both drum and the
large sprocket shaft.

 Different Prototype threshers were produced by Research

Institutes, TVETs here in Ethiopia. (Melkasa, Bako,
Kombolcha, etc,,)
Modern Combine Harvester
Modern Combine Harvester
a machine reaps and threshes grain
AIRIC-Bako Modified Maize Sheller
Output =6000-8000kg/hr
Price =35,000Birr
Post Harvest Handling Cont..
 Cleaning, Sorting and Grading

 After grain has been harvested and threshed,

 It is required to clean and to remove impurities

soil, small stones, dusts, empty grains, stem

remnants and husks.

This carried out by:

 winnowing to blow away light trash by air
 sieving to remove heaver and bulkier
 to leave intact, well filled and sound grains.
 Post Harvest Handling Cont..

Cleaning: Cleaning is the removal of dissimilar, foreign

and undesired materials from the threshed food grains.

Sorting. Sorting refers to the separation of cleaned

products into various quality fractions that may be on
the basis of the following physical properties of food
grains:
a). Size c). Density e). Color
b). Shape d). Texture
 Post Harvest Handling Cont..

Grading: Grading of cereal grains dependent on the factors

which implies the classification of material on the basis of
commercial values and other users.
Grading standards set up by government and associations.
Grading factors which apply in various combinations to all
products produced on farm could be classified as:
1). Physical characteristics
a) Moisture Content d). Texture f) Foreign material
b). Unit size e). Color g). Shape
 Post Harvest Handling Cont..
2). Chemical Characteristics
 a). Analysis of composition
 b). Rancidity, free fatty acid index
 c). Odor or flavor
3). Biological Characteristics
 a). Rate of Germination
 b). Type and amount of insect damage
 c). Type and amount of mould and fungus damage
 d). Bacterial count
 Grain Cleaning Procedures

Cereal grains cleaning can be divided into two

categories:
• Namely, wet cleaning and dry cleaning

• Wet cleaning operation includes washing, spraying,

floating and soaking of grain products.

• Drying cleaning operations includes separation of

dissimilar or foreign materials from agricultural
products by means of air, screens, magnetism, hand
picking and ultrasonic cleaning.
 Grain Cleaning Procedures

Dry cleaning of Grain (Seed cleaner)

 Grain Cleaning Cont..
Dry cleaning of Grain (Seed cleaner)
 Grain Cleaning Cont..
• A vibrating air screen cleaner
Grain Cleaning Cont..
 Grain Cleaning Procedures

• Screen for grain cleaning

 Grain Cleaning Procedures
• Screen for grain cleaning
 Pneumatic Grain Cleaning

• 1. Removal of undesirable materials, 2. Uniform feeder, 3. Out

let for clean grain, 4. Centrifugal blower 5. Air intake control
 Grain Cleaning Cont..

• 1.Hopper for feeding 2. Water spray 3. Iron powder mixing 4.

magnetic drum magnetic separator
 Grain Storage
• Agents Causing Losses or Deterioration
The main agents causing deterioration of
stored grains are:
• Micro organisms (fungi, bacteria and
yeast/molds)
• Insects and Mites
• Rodents
• Birds
• Metabolic Activities
 Grain Storage Cont..
• Metabolic Activities:
• Cereal grains are living material and their normal chemical reactions
produce heat and chemical reactions by products.

• Heat is also generated by insects, mites, and microorganisms which, if

presented in large number may be lead to a significant rise in
temperature of stored products.

• Under aerobic condition the complete combustion of a typical

carbohydrate can be represented by the following equation:
• C6H12O6+6O2 ------6CO2+6H2O+677.2 Kcal

• a. The loss due to grain being converted by microorganism to carbon

dioxide and water.
• b. The other loss occurs when the grain (in its entirely or as individual
kernels) rejected
Terminal Elevators: Usually located in transportation terminals and larger markets, terminal
elevators .
 They usually include high-capacity equipment for cleaning, drying, and conditioning of grain
Grain storage Bins
Terminal Elevators (silos)
 Grain Storage

• Terminal Elevators (Damaged due to Metabolic

activities of grain)
Traditional storage structures of Ethiopia
 Grain Storage
• Improved under ground Pit
 Food Preservation Methods
oThermal Food Preservation Methods
 Drying, Pasteurization, Irradiation and Freezing,

 FOOD DRYING /Dehydration is the process of removing water or

moisture from a food product.
Removing moisture from foods makes them smaller and lighter
Drying or Dehydration is one of the unit operation most commonly

used for food preservation

Thedevelopment of drying industry linked to the demand for food to
feed soldiers in war around the world.

Dehydrated foods are ideal for packing, hiking, and camping, because
they weigh much less than their non-dried non dried and do not require
refrigeration
The drying process eliminates the water in the Food products and make
suitable to protects them against attack of;
 molds, fungus, insects microorganisms
Hence extend their shelf life
 Thermal Food Preservation Methods

 Except for freeze drying, osmotic drying

and vacuum drying, the removal of water
from food is achieved in most cases by
blowing a dry air flow.
 This eliminates water from the surface of the

product to the air stream.

 In drying process, it is important to know the

mechanisms related to the movement of
water inside and outside the food.
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

Generally, the three characteristics of air that are necessary for

successful drying when the food is moist:
 1. a moderately high

 dry-bulb temperature
2. a low RH
3. a high air velocity.

This figure shows the

Movement of moisture
During drying
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

Constant Rate Period

When food is placed into a drier, there is a short initial settling
down period as the surface heats up to the wet-bulb
temperature (A–B ).
Drying then commences and, provided
water moves from the interior of the
food at the same rate as it evaporates
from the surface, the surface remains
wet.

This is known as the constant-rate

period (A-B) and continues until a certain
critical moisture content is reached (B–C)
The surface temperature of the food remains
close to the wet-bulb temperature of the
drying air until the end of the constant-rate period, due to the
cooling effect of the evaporating water.
Overall, the rate of drying declines gradually towards the end of the
‘constant’-rate period.
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

Falling-rate period
When the moisture content of the food falls
below the critical moisture content (B-C), the
rate of drying slowly decreases until it
approaches zero at the equilibrium
moisture content (that is the food
comes into equilibrium with the
drying air).
This is known as the falling rate
period.
Non-hygroscopic foods have a
single falling-rate period (C–D). Whereas
hygroscopic foods have two or more
periods.

The temperature and humidity of the drying

air are constant and all heat is supplied to food
Surface by convection.
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

During the falling-rate period(s), the rate of

water movement from the interior to the
surface falls below the rate at which water
evaporates to the surrounding air.

Then the surface, therefore, dries out

(assuming that the temperature, humidity and
air velocity are unchanged).
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

Water moves from the interior of the food to the surface by the
following mechanisms:

•Liquid movement by capillary forces, particularly in porous foods

• Diffusion of liquids, caused by differences in the concentration of

solutes at the surface and in the interior of the food

• Diffusion of liquids which are adsorbed in layers at the surfaces of

solid components of the food

• Water vapor diffusion in air spaces within the food caused by vapor
pressure gradients
  
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

Other factors which influence the rate of drying include

 The composition and structure of the food
 The amount of food placed into a drier


Equipment for Drying 

Hot-air driers
 The cost of fuel for heating air is the main economic factor affecting

drying operations.
 Some commercial driers have a number of features that are designed to

reduce heat losses or save energy.

 Reducing heat loss by the following methods:

 • recirculation of exhaust air through the drying chamber
 • recovering heat from the exhaust air to heat incoming air
 using heat exchangers
 • automatic control of air humidity by computer control
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Type of Hot Air Driers

  
 1. Conveyor driers (Belt Drier)
 2. Bin Driers
 3. Cabinet Driers ( Tray Driers)
 4. Tunnel Driers

Conveyor Driers (Belt Drier)  

Continuous conveyor driers are up to 20m long
and 3m wide.
Food is dried on a mesh belt in beds 5–15 cm
deep.
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 This fig. show a one stage Conveyor food drier.

 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

The air flow is initially directed upwards

through the bed of food and then downwards
in later stages to prevent dried food from
blowing out of the bed.

Two- or three-stage driers mix and re-pile the

partly dried food into deeper beds (to 15–25 cm
and then 25–90 m long in three-stage driers).
This improves uniformity of drying and saves floor
space.
Foods are dried to 10–15% moisture content and
then finished in bin driers
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 This fig. shows a three stages conveyor food drier.

 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Bin Drier
 Bin driers are large, cylindrical or rectangular

containers fitted with a mesh base.

 Hot air passes up through a bed of food at

relatively low velocities at 0.5m/s per square

meter of bin area.
 They have a high capacity and low capital and

running costs, and are mainly used for

‘finishing’ (to 3–6% moisture content) after
initial drying in other types of driers.
Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Wheat Dryer
Batch Bin Dryer
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Batch-Dryers:

 1.Exit air,. 2.Wet grain 3. Drying zone, 4.Dry grain, 5.

Blower
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Cabinet Drier (Tray Driers)

  These consist of an insulated cabinet fitted with

shallow mesh or perforated trays, each of which

contains a thin (2–6 cm deep) layer of food.
 Hot air is blown at 0.5–5m/s through a system

of ducts and baffles to promote uniform air

distribution over and/or through each tray.
 Additional heaters may be placed above or

alongside the trays to increase the rate of drying.

 Tray driers are used for small-scale production

(1–20t per day) or for pilot-scale work

 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Trays or racks
 Heated air ( 60-80oC) at set velocity and with
 a low %Relative humidity

 Poor/ moderate rehydration properties

 ( case hardening)
 Food shrinkage, dense product,
 shape not held
 Quick, inexpensive
 Small scale
 10-20 hrs needed

 Eg.) Pasta, vegetables, fruit, herbs and spices

Tray Drier
Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Spray Driers ; Spray drying is a method of producing a dry

powder from a liquid or slurry by rapidly drying with a hot
gas.
 This is the preferred method of drying of many thermally-
sensitive materials such as foods and pharmaceuticals.

A fine dispersion of pre-concentrated food

(40–60% moisture) is first ‘atomised’ to form
fine droplets and then sprayed into a co- or
Counter current flow of heated air at 150-
300ºC in a large drying chamber.
 Spray Drying
Small droplets;
rapid dehydration
Liquid food

Hot dry air

175-300oC Exit moist air
Food must be liquid

Air cyclone Fastest method

seperator to dehydrate

Height of chamber
is based on time needed
to dehydrate given food
Dry food collection
Used for milk,
eggs, protein powders,
flavorings, and coffee
One of the following types of atomiser is used.
Centrifugal atomiser : by rotating create 90-200m/s
velocity
Pressure nozzle atomiser: Liquid is forced at a high
pressure
Two-fluid nozzle atomiser; Using compressed air
 Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Sun and solar drying (Food Crops)

Sun drying (without drying equipment) is the most widely

practiced agricultural processing operation in the world.

More than 250 000 000 t of fruits and grains are dried by solar
energy per annum.

In some countries, foods are simply laid out in fields or on

roofs or other flat surfaces and turned regularly until dry.

More sophisticated methods (solar drying) collect solar energy

and heat air, which in turn is used for drying
 \
Thermal Food Preservation Cont…

 Principle of Solar Collector

Construction of Solar Drier
 According to air resistance,
 the material depth varies 3 - 10 cm.
 The batch capacity 20 - 40 kg
 Drying requires 10 - 30 sun shine hours.

 Materials:
 Hard wood for frame
 Soft wood for the box 1mm perforated sheet metal for the bottom

tray
 The chimney is made from steel hose
 The cover is made of PVC polythene foil preferably UV–resistant

(green house foil)

 In order to increase the energy out put of the solar drier:
 Make the collector larger

 Place collector in north-south direction tilt

 The simplest collector consists of a blackened plated and a

transparent cover above it, sealed by side walls

 Solar Drier
 Ac = Collector area, dc = Collector thickness,
 lc = Collector length, wc = collector width,
 Af =Crossection of air flow
  
 During the design of the solar drier, the
length of the collector (lc) must be made at
least 20 times the collector thickness (dc).
The other dimension can be chosen
deliberately. (lc =20 Wc)
 Dry, warm climates
 Slow drying method
( several days)
 Fruits, vegetables, fish
 Inexpensive
 Invasion by insects, birds,
 rodents, microorganisms
 Changes During Drying/Dehydration
 Chemical changes
◦ Browning and flavor changes due to reactions
 Maillard browning = from increased solution
concentration
◦ Denaturation of proteins, aggregation of
polysaccharides
 Loss of water soluble binding capacity
◦ Loss of water soluble components or
◦ Concentration on the surface of the food ( case
hardening)
◦ Loss of volatiles ( especially flavor compounds)
NOTE: Not all dried /dehydrated foods
show these changes , it depends on
the method of drying
 Pasteurization
 Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat
treatment,
 Food is heated to below 100ºC ,pH>4.5, for

example milk, used to minimize possible

health hazards from pathogenic micro-
organisms, to extend the shelf life of foods
for several days

 In acidic foods (pH<4.5, for example bottled

fruit), to extend the shelf life for several
months
 Pasteurization Cont..

 Extension shelf life

 By destruction of spoilage micro-organisms

(yeasts or molds) and/or enzyme inactivation

 in both types of food (acidic and non acidic)

 minimal changes are caused to the sensory

characteristics or nutritive value.
 Theory of Pasteurization
Food Main purpose Minimum Processing
Conditions
pH<4.5, Fruit Enzyme 65oC for30 min,
Juice Inactivation 77oC for1min,
88oC for 15sec
Beer Destruction of 65-68oC for 20 min. in bottle
microorganisms 72-75oC for 1-4min.
(wild yeasts, )
pH >4.5, milk Destruction of 63oC for30min,
pathogens 72oC for15s
Liquid Eggs Destruction of 65oC for 2.5min.
pathogens 60oC for 3.5min.
 Theory of Pasteurization
 High-Temperature Short-Time (HTST)
 HTST processing at 71.8ºC for 15 sec
 Higher temperatures and shorter times, eg., milk at:
 88ºC for 1 s,
 94ºC for 0.1 s or
 100 ºC for 0.01 s
 This is called flash Pasteurization
 Theory of Pasteurization cont…
 Ultra High Temperature (UHT)-Treatment
 Treatment of food by exposing to Intensive

heating
 temperature in range of 135 – 140oC
 kills microorganisms otherwise could destroy

the product
 In closed system to protect air-borne

microorganisms.
 The product passes through a cooling system

in quick succession.
 Pasteurization
 Pasteurization of Packaged Foods
 Liquid Foods;
 beers and fruit juices, are pasteurized after

filling into containers

 Metal or plastic containers are used
 Steam mixture or hot water as there is little

risk of thermal shock.

 Food is cooled to approximately 40ºC to

minimize external corrosion to the container

or cap
Heat Exchanger Plate
Heat Exchanger
 The complete Dairy Processing Line
x
 Effect on Food

 Pasteurization is a relatively mild heat treatment

 Minor changes to the nutritional and sensory

characteristics of most foods.

 Colour, Flavour and Aroma

 In fruit juices the main cause of colour

deterioration is enzymic browning.

 This caused by polyphenol oxidase, promoted

by the presence of oxygen.

 This can be protected by deaeration
 Vitamin Losses
 In fruit juices, losses of vitamin C and
carotene
 It is minimized by deaeration

 Changes to milk are confined to a 5% loss of

serum proteins

 There is small changes to the vitamin

content.