OMD 551

BASICS OF BIOMEDICAL
INSTRUMENTATION
POSSIBLE PART- A &
PART- B
 UNIT – I
PART- A Q & A
S.No PART A CO’S Blooms Level

1.
What are Bioelectric potentials?
 Bioelectric potentials6.5
are ionic
Partvoltages
A Q &produced
A (withdue K to electro
level and CO)
chemical activity of cells associated with nerve conduction, brain
activity, heart beat, muscle activity and so on.
Living tissues are considered as power station generating multiple
electrical signals with two internal sources called muscles and
nerves. CO1 K1

Muscular contraction is associated with the migration of ions –

which generates potential differences.
Bio electric potentials are generated at cellular level and the
source of these potentials is ionic in nature.

2. What is resting potential of a cell? Give typical values.

 The drift and diffusion process gives rise to a balance of ions between Inside and
outside of a cell.
 Usually , Nerve and muscle cells permit the entry of potassium and chloride ions. It
blocks entry of sodium ions.
 Due to the difference in permeability of different ions , charge balance is not
achieved. So that an equilibrium condition is reached with the potential difference
across the membrane, such that negative potential on the inside the cell membrane
and positive potential on the outside membrane. CO1 K1
 This membrane potential caused by different concentration of ions is called as
Resting Potential. The resting potential of a cell is given as negative Voltage
(-60mV to -100mV).

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3. What is an action potential?

When the cell membrane is excited by some external energy or stimulus, then the
permeability changes. The cell membrane is stimulated by stimulus, the permeability of cell
membrane of Na+ is dramatically increased. Sodium channels are open, sodium ions rush
through the channel to the inside of the cell causing inside of the cell to be more positive
than the outside. This is called Depolarization. The membrane potential becomes reversed
and reaches a voltage of +35mV. The positive potential of the cell membrane during
CO1 K1
excitation is called as action potential.

4. Draw the action potential waveform.

It can be divided 5 phases:

 The Resting Potential
 Threshold
 The Rising Phase (Depolarization)
 The Falling Phase( Repolarization)
 The Recovery phase

CO1 K2

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Level
5. Give the Nernst equation for electrode potential.

The half-cell potential developed can be expressed by the Nernst equation :

where
n- Valency of ion ; R- Gas Constant ;
CO1 K1
T- Temperature
C1,C2 – Concentration of selected ion on two
sides of the membrane
f1,f2 – Activity coefficients of the ion on two
sides of the membrane
6. How is action potential propagated?

 When the cell membrane is excited by some external energy or stimulus, then
the permeability changes.
 The cell membrane is stimulated by stimulus, the permeability of cell
CO1 K1
membrane of Na+ is dramatically increased.
 Sodium channels are open, sodium ions rush through the channel to the inside
of the cell causing inside of the cell to be more positive than the outside. This
is called Depolarization.
 The membrane potential becomes reversed and reaches a voltage of +35mV.
7. How is the half cell potential setup?

 The interface of metallic ions in solution with their associated metal results in
an electrical potential. That is called electrode potential.
 Half-cell potential is the voltage developed at the electrode-electrolyte
interface. CO1 K1
 Half cell potential is determined by
 Metal involved
 Concentration of the ion
 Temperature

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S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
Level

 In a metal – solution interface, electrode potential arises at two conditions

 when ions travel from metal into the solution
 when ions in solution combine with electrons in the metal they
form the atom of metal. CO1 K1
 Metal electrode and body fluid interacts electrode discharges ions into
solution. At the same instance ions in the electrolyte combine with
the electrode. This results in the generation of charge gradient.

8. What is absolute and relative refractory period?

Absolute Refractory Period:

It is the time duration in which the cell cannot respond to any
new stimulus. It is about 1ms in nerve cells CO1 K1
Relative Refractory Period:
It is one during which another potential can be triggered but
higher stimulus is required to reinitiate the action potential and the subsequent
contraction of muscles. RRP is in several milliseconds.

9. Define All or Nothing law.

All or nothing law states that regardless of the method of
excitation of cells or by the intensity of the stimulus , the action potential is the CO1 K1
same for any given cell.

10. What are Biopotential Electrodes?

 Bio electrodes function as an interface between biological structures
and electronic systems.
 Electrodes are employed to pick up the electrical signal of the body.
 Act as Transducer (i.e.) Ionic current in the body electronic current CO1 K1
in the circuit.

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S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
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11. List different types of electrodes

 Different types of electrodes used for biological measurements depend on the

anatomical locations, from where the bioelectric signals are measured.
Bioelectric electrodes acquire the signals like ECG, EEG, EMG, etc. CO1 K1
 Generally, Electrodes can be classified into 3 types:
Surface electrodes.
Depth and needle electrodes.
Micro electrodes.
12. What is polarized and non- polarized Electrodes?

 When current is applied there is no net transfer of charge across the metal
electrolyte, interface electrodes are Perfectly Polarized Electrode.
Electrodes behave like capacitors. Example: Platinum Electrode.
CO1 K1
 When the exchange of charge occurs across metal-electrolyte interface
without hindrance, electrode are Perfectly Non Polarized Electrode. Here
current flows freely across the interface and energy is not required for it.
Example: Ag/AgCl electrode. For recording applications, Non-Polarized
electrodes are used.
13. Define micro electrode and what are the types of Micro electrodes?

 It is used to measure the bioelectric potential near or within a single cell.

While measuring the potential of the microelectrode is located within the cell
and the reference electrode is placed outside the cell.
 It is also called Intracellular electrodes.
 It has a very small diameter, so that it does not damage the cell while CO1 K1
insertion.
 Size of the cells is about 50 microns, the diameter of the tip of the
microelectrode is ranging from 0.5 to 5 microns.
 2 Types:
Metal microelectrodes
Micropipet (Non metallic microelectrodes)

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14. List the different types of surface electrodes

Surface electrodes can be classified into 5 types:

 Metal Plate Electrodes (Limb Electrodes)
CO1 K1
 Suction Cup Electrodes (Welsh Cup)
 Adhesive Tape Electrodes
 Multipoint Type Electrodes
 Floating Electrodes
15. List the types of internal electrodes?

 Needle electrodes also called as Internal Electrodes. Used to measure

EEG and EMG Signals.
 A short length of the fine insulated metal wire is bent at its one end
and the bent portion is inserted through the lumen of the needle and is
advanced into the muscle.
CO1 K1
 When we insert two insulated wires into the lumen of the needle, then
the two wires constitute bipolar electrode such that one wire act as
active electrode and another act as reference electrode.
 3 Types:
Monopolar Needle Electrode
Concentric or Coaxial Needle Electrode
Bipolar Needle Electrode
17. What are the electrodes used for ECG, EEG and EMG measurement?
CO1 K1
Surface electrodes are used for ECG
Needle Electrodes are used for EEG and EMG

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S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
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16. Draw the equivalent circuit of Metal Microelectrodes.

where
EA – Metal electrode – Electrolyte potential CO1 K2
EB – Reference electrode – Electrolyte potential
EC – Variable cell membrane potential
RA – Resistance of connecting wire (Negligible)
RS - Resistance of shaft of the micro electrode(Negligible)
RFA,RWA,CWA- Impedance of the ME tip- inter cellular fluid interface.
RIN- Resistance of the intra cellular fluid
RB- resistance of the wire connected to the reference electrode
RFB,RWB,CWB- Impedance of the RE tip- Extra cellular fluid interface.
REX- Resistance of the Extra cellular fluid
CD- Distributed capacitance between the tip of the ME and Extra cellular
fluid(Negligible)
19. Draw equivalent circuit of Half-cell Potential.

CO1 K2
where
Ehc – Half cell potential
Rd-Leakage Resistance
Cd- Electrode Capacitance
Rs- Skin Resistance

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 UNIT – II
PART- A Q & A
S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
Level
1. What are the electrodes used for ECG? CO2 K2
Limb electrodes6.5 Part A Q & A (with K level and CO)
Floating electrodes
Paste less electrodes
2. What are the electrodes used for EEG? CO2 K2
Silver chloride disc electrode
Depth electrode
Small needle electrode
Silver ball or pellet electrodes
Carbon cloth electrode
 
3. Define Electrocardiograph and Electroencephalograph. CO2 k1
 
The electrocardiograph (ECG) is an instrument which records the electrical activity
of the heart. It is the instrument used for recording electrical activity of the brain
by suitably placing electrodes on the scalp.
 
4. What are the electrodes used for EMG? CO2 K2
Needle electrode
Coaxial core electrode
Capacitive type needle electrode
5. Define EOG and ERG. CO2 k1
The measure of corneal-retinal potential is called Electrooculogram (EOG).  
The recording and interpreting the electrical activity of eye is called Electro
retinogram (ERG).
6. Give the disadvantage of using surface electrodes with EMG CO2 K2

Surface electrodes can be used only for superficial muscles 

They are sensitive to electrical activity over too wide area.

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S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
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12. Define Einthoven triangle. CO2 K1
 
The closed path RA to LA to LL and back to RA is called Einthoven triangle. According
to Einthoven the frontal plane of the body and cardiac electric field vector forms the
two dimensional plane.
13. Define electrocardiogram (ECG) CO2 K1

The electrocardiogram is a graphic recording or display of the time variant voltage

display produced by myocardium during cardiac cycle. Electrocardiography (ECG)
deals with the study of electrical activity of heart muscles.
14. How the heart sounds and murmurs characterized? CO2 K2

Heart sounds and murmurs are usually characterized by three physical properties.
They are
Frequency
Amplitude
Quality
15. List the three augmented lead connections. CO2 K1

The three augmented lead connections are

Augmented voltage right arm (aVR)
Augmented voltage left arm (VL)
Augmented voltage foot (aVF).
 
16. How many lead selections are required for electrocardiograms? CO2 K2

Twelve lead selections are required to record the electrocardiogram. i.e. 3 standard
bipolar leads, 3 augmented leads and 6 chest leads.
17. List the practical considerations for ECG recording. CO2 K1

Artifacts, wandering of base line, solid base line, frequency response.

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S.No PART A CO’S Blooms
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18. Define excitory post synaptic potential (EPSP). CO2 K1

If the transmitter substance is excitatory, the receptor membrane potential increases in a

positive direction. So that the receptor neuron is more likely to discharge and produces a spike
potential. This induced change is called excitory post synaptic potential(EPSP).

19. Give the classifications of the brain waves. CO2 K2

Brain waves are classified into four types. They are

Alpha wave
Beta wave
Theta wave
Delta wave

20. How many electrodes are used in modern EEG unit? CO2 K2

12 electrodes are used in modern EEG unit.

21. How the EEG can be recorded? CO2 K1

EEG may be recorded by picking up voltage difference between an active electrode on the
scalp with respect to a reference electrode on the ear lobe or other part of the body. This type
of recording is called monopolar recording.

22. Define Epilepsy. CO2 K1

Epilepsy is a system for brain damage. This may be due to defects in the birth delivery or head
injury during accident or boxing. It may also be due to brain tumor.

23. Define stroke volume. CO2 K1

Stroke volume is defined as the amount of blood that is ejected during each heart beat.
Stroke volume = Cardiac output / number of beats/ min.
 

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24. Define total lung capacity. CO2 K1

Total lung capacity (TLC) is the amount of gas contained in the lungs at the end
of maximal inspiration. It is the sum of vital capacity and residual volume.
25. Define heart sounds. CO2 K1

Heart sounds are acoustic phenomena resulting from the vibrations of cardiac
structures. 74.List the classifications of heart sounds. Heart sounds are classified
into four group on the basis of their mechanism of origin.
They are
 Valve closure sounds
 Ventricular filling sounds
 Valve opening sounds
 Extra cardiac sounds
26. Define heart murmurs. CO2 K1
Heart murmurs are sounds related to non-laminar flow of blood in the heart and
great vessels.
 
27. Give the origin of heart sounds. CO2 K2
There are four basic separate heart sounds that occur during the sequence of
one complete cycle. 
 First heart sound: it is produced by the sudden closure of the mitral and
tricuspid valves associated with myocardial contraction.  
 Second heart sound : it is due to the vibration set up by the closure of
semilunar valves. i.e. the closure of aortic and pulmonary valves.  
Third heart sound : It arises as the ventricles relax and the internal pressure
drops below the pressure in the atrium.  
Fourth heart sound : it is also called an atrial sound. It is caused by an
accelerated flow of blood into ventricles or due to atrial contraction.
28. Define inhibitory post synaptic potential (IPSP). CO2 K1
If the transmitter substance in inhibitory, the membrane potential of the
receptor neuron increases in a negative direction. So that it is less likely to
discharge, this induced potential change is called inhibitory post synaptic
potential.

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Part B QUESTIONS (Unit I)
S.No PART B CO’S Blooms
Level
1. (i) How do you record the action potential?
(ii) With the action potential waveform summarize
CO1 K1
depolarization, repolarization and absolute and relative
refractory periods.
2. Explain generation of Action potential and its propagation. CO1 K2
3. (i) Explain the characteristics of resting potential with
reference to Nernst equation. CO1 K2
(ii)Explain Half cell Potential and over potential of electrode
4. Describe the usage of the various types of electrodes used
CO1 K2
to measure biopotentials.
5. (i)How the Limb and suction cup electrodes can be used for
recording of ECG. CO1 K1
(ii) Explain the effect of electrode potential on biosignals.
6. Draw the electrical equivalent circuit of a glass
CO1 K1
microelectrode and explain its electrical characteristics.
7. What are body surface electrodes? Describe in brief with
CO1 K1
suitable examples.

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 Part B QUESTIONS (Unit II)
S.No PART B CO’S Blooms
Level
1. Express the importance of 12 lead system in ECG. CO2 K2
2. Analyze the 10-20 system of recording EEG. CO2 K2
3. Show the typical ECG waveform and mark the
important features and their associated function of CO2 K2
the heart
4. Develop the EEG waveform in detail and its signal
CO2 K2
frequency bands.
5. Compare the signal characteristics of ECG and EMG CO2 K2
6. Measure the ECG recording system in detail CO2 K2
7. Discuss about augmented unipolar limb lead system CO2 K2
8. Measure the EEG recording system in detail CO2 K2
9. Explain in detail about EMG with recording system CO2 K2
10. Discuss about different types of bio electric signals
CO2 K2
and its characteristics

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