SAMARA UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Engineering Material II (MEng2092)

Chapter – one
Steel

Lecture delivered by Hailay G

 Production of iron and steel

 Production of iron:

 Most iron is extracted from iron ore in large blast furnaces. In the blast furnaces coke (Carbon)
acts as reducing agent to reduce in to iron oxide to produce raw pig iron, which contains 4%
carbon. The purpose of a blast furnace is to reduce and convert iron oxides into liquid iron
called "hot metal".

 Raw Materials for production of pig iron in blast furnaces

 Iron Ore e.g. hematite ore

 Coke (carbon, C) used for fuel and reducing agent

 Limestone (calcium carbonate = CaCO3

 Hot air
Introduction to steel
 Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon
 Mixture of iron + up to 2.1 % of carbon is called as steel
 It is having high tensile strength
 It is having high corrosive resistance
Steel production methods
1.Crucible process
 The Huntsman crucible process has been superseded by the high
frequency induction furnace in which the heat is generated
in the metal itself by eddy currents induced by a magnetic
field set up by an alternating current, which passes round
water-cooled coils surrounding the crucible.
 Contamination by furnace gases is obviated and charges
fro 1 to 5 tones can be melted
2. Bessemer process

In both the Acid Bessemer and Basic Bessemer

processes molten pig iron is refined by blowing
air through it. 15-25 tones capacity.
2% silicon in the acid and 1,5-2% phosphorus in the
basic process is normally necessary to supply the heat.
3. . Electric process
A) Electric arc type process
 The heat required in this process is generated by electric arcs struck
between carbon electrodes and the metal bath. Usually,
a charge of graded steel scrap is melted under an oxidizing
basic slag to remove the phosphorus. The impure slag is
removed by tilting the furnace. A second limey slag is used
to remove Sulphur and to deoxidize the metal in the furnace.
B) High frequency electric (or) induction furnace

 The heart of the coreless induction furnace is the coil, which consists of a hollow section of heavy

duty, high conductivity copper tubing which is wound into a helical coil. Coil shape is contained

within a steel shell and magnetic shielding is used to prevent heating of the supporting shell.

 To protect it from overheating, the coil is water-cooled, the water Bing recirculated and cooled in a

cooling tower. The shell is supported on trunnions on which the furnace tils to facilitate pouring.
4.Basic Oxygen (or) LD processes

Melted metal charged into the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) vessel. Oxygen (>99.5% pure) is
"blown" into the BOF at supersonic velocities. It oxidizes the carbon and silicon contained in
the hot metal liberating great quantities of heat which melts the scrap.
5.Kaldo process
(Swedish) process uses top blowing with oxygen together with a basic lined rotating (30
rev/min) furnace to get efficient mixing. The use of oxygen allows the simultaneous
removal of carbon and phosphorus from the (P, 1, 85%) pig iron. Lime and ore are
added.

6.Duplex Process
This is merely a combination of the Bessemer and open-hearth processes. Pig metal is
blown in an acid Bessemer converter until silicon, manganese, and part or all of the
carbon are removed. It is then practically a molten steel high in phosphorus. From the
converter it is conveyed to the basic open-hearth furnace for refining, for removal of the
phosphorus, and for re-carburization.
 Physical Properties

Some of the physical properties of steel are defined as below.

 1. Density:-Mass per unit volume is called as density. In metric system its unit is
kg/mm3. Because of very low density, aluminum and magnesium are preferred in
aeronautic and transportation applications.
 2. Color:-It deals the quality of light reflected from the surface of metal.
 3. Size and shape:-Dimensions of any metal reflect the size and shape of the
material. Length, width, height, depth, curvature diameter etc. determines the size.
Shape specifies the rectangular, square, circular or any other section.
 4. Specific Gravity:-Specific gravity of any metal is the ratio of the mass of a given
volume of the metal to the mass of the same volume of water at a specified
temperature.
 5. Porosity:-A material is called as porous or permeable if it has pores within it.
 Chemical Properties
 Some of the chemical properties of the metals are corrosion resistance, chemical
composition and acidity or alkalinity.
 Corrosion is the gradual deterioration of material by chemical reaction with its
environment.
Thermal Properties
 To know the response of metal to thermal changes i.e. lowering or raising of
temperature. Different thermal properties are thermal conductivity, thermal expansion,
specific heat, melting point, thermal diffusivity.
Melting Point
 Melting point is the temperature at which a pure metal or compound changes its shape
from solid to liquid. It is called as the temperature at which the liquid and solid are in
equilibrium.
 Melting point of mild steel is 1500°C, of copper is 1080°C and of Aluminum is 650°C.
 Electrical Properties
 The various electrical properties of materials are conductivity, temperature coefficient of resistance,
dielectric strength, resistivity, and thermoelectricity. These properties are defined as under.
1.Conductivity:-it is the ability of the material to pass electric current through it easily i.e. the material
which is conductive will provide an easy path for the flow of electricity through it.
2.Temperature Coefficient of Resistance:-It is generally termed as to specify the variation of
resistivity with temperature.
3. Dielectric Strength:-It means insulating capacity of material at high voltage. A material having
high dielectric strength can withstand for longer time for high voltage across it before it conducts the
current through it. The various electrical properties of materials are conductivity, temperature
coefficient of resistance, dielectric strength, resistivity, and thermoelectricity. These properties are
defined as under.
4. Resistivity:-It is the property of a material by which it resists the flow of electricity through it.
5. Thermoelectricity:-If two dissimilar metals are joined and then this junction is heated, a small
voltage (in the milli-volt range) is produced, and this is known as thermoelectric effect. It is the base of
the thermocouple. Thermo -couples are prepared using the properties of metals.
 Magnetic Properties
 Magnetic properties of materials arise from the spin of the electrons and the orbital motion of
electrons around the atomic nuclei.
 Various magnetic properties of the materials are magnetic hysteresis, coercive force and
absolute permeability which are defined as under.
1. Magnetic Hysteresis:-Hysteresis is defined as the lagging of magnetization or induction flux
density behind the magnetizing force or it is that quality of a magnetic substance due to energy is
dissipated in it on reversal of its magnetism. Below Curie temperature, magnetic hysteresis is the
rising temperature at which the given material ceases to be ferromagnetic, or the falling
temperature at which it becomes magnetic. Almost all magnetic materials exhibit the
phenomenon called hysteresis.
2. Coercive Force:-It is defined as the magnetizing force which is essential to neutralize
completely the magnetism in an electromagnet after the value of magnetizing force becomes zero.
3. Absolute Permeability:-It is defined as the ratio of the flux density in a material to the
magnetizing force producing that flux density. Paramagnetic materials possess permeability
greater than one whereas di-magnetic materials have permeability less than one.
 Optical Properties
 The main optical properties of engineering materials are refractive index, absorptivity,
absorption co-efficient, reflectivity and transmissivity
 Refractive Index:-It is defined as the ratio of velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity
of a material. It can also be termed as the ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine of
refraction

Mechanical Properties
The mechanical properties of materials are of great industrial importance in the design of
tools, machines and structures.
The main mechanical properties of the metal are listed below;-
1.Elasticity :-It is defined as the property of a material to regain its original shape after
deformation when the external forces are removed. It is also called as the tensile property
of the material.
 Cont.…

2.Proportional limit :-It is defined as the maximum stress under which a

material will maintain a perfectly uniform rate of strain to stress.
3.Elastic limit:-Many metals can be put under stress slightly above the
proportional limit without taking a permanent set. The greatest stress that a
material can endure without taking up some permanent set is called elastic limit.
4.Yield point:-At a specific stress, ductile metals particularly ceases, offering
resistance to tensile forces. This means, the metals flow and a relatively large
permanent set takes place without a noticeable increase in load. This point is
called yield point.
5.Strength:-it is defined as the ability of a material to resist the externally
applied forces with breakdown or yielding.
6.Stiffness:-It is defined as the ability of a material to resist deformation under
stress. The resistance of a material to elastic deformation or deflection is called
stiffness or rigidity.
 Cont..
7. Plasticity:- it is defined the mechanical property of a material which retains the deformation
produced under load permanently. This property of the material is required in forging, in stamping
images on coins and in ornamental work. It is the ability or tendency of material to undergo some degree
of permanent deformation without its rupture or its failure.
8. Ductility:-it is termed as the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of tensile load. A ductile material must be strong and plastic.
9.Malleability:-it is the ability of the material to be flattened into thin sheets under applications of
heavy compressive forces without cracking by hot or cold working means.
10. Hardness:-it is defined as the ability of a metal to cut another metal. A harder metal can always cut
or put impression to the softer metals by virtue of its hardness.
11.Brittleness:-it is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property of breaking of a
material with little permanent distortion. The materials having less than 5% elongation under loading
behavior are said to be brittle materials.
12. Creep:-When a metal part when is subjected to a high constant stress at high temperature for a
longer period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation (in form of a crack which may
further propagate further towards creep failure) called creep.
 Cont..

13. Formability:-It is the property of metals which denotes the ease in its forming
in to various shapes and sizes. The different factors that affect the formability are
crystal structure of metal, grain size of metal hot and cold working, alloying
element present in the parent metal.
14.Cast ability:-it is defined as the property of metal, which indicates the ease
with it can be casted into different shapes and sizes. Cast iron, aluminum and
brass are possessing good cast ability.
15.Weldability:-it is defined as the property of a metal which indicates the two
similar or dissimilar metals are joined by fusion with or without the application of
pressure and with or without the use of filler metal (welding) efficiently.
 Alloying
 Mixing to two or more metals or nonmetals to improve the mechanical properties
such as strength ,hardness, toughness and ductility of the base metal is called as
alloying
Ex: Aluminum + iron >To improve the hardness of the aluminum
Gold + copper >To improve the ductility of the gold
 By using this alloying process we can create new metals also
Ex: Iron + carbon = steel
in these examples aluminum, gold and iron are called as base metals and iron copper
and carbon are called as alloying elements
 in any alloying composition the percentage of base metal is more and the
percentage of alloying metal is less
 Effects Alloying Elements on Steel
 Specific effects of the addition of such elements are outlined below:-
 Chromium (Cr):-Increases tensile strength, hardness, hardenability, toughness, resistance to
wear and abrasion and resistance to corrosion.
 Manganese (Mn):-it reacts with sulfur to improve forge ability. It increases tensile strength,
hardness, hardenability and resistance to wear
 Molybdenum (Mo):-Increases strength, hardness, hardenability, and toughness, as well as
creep resistance and strength at elevated temperatures. It improves machinability and
resistance to corrosion.
 Nickel (Ni):-it Increases strength and hardness without sacrificing ductility and toughness. It
also increases resistance to corrosion and scaling at elevated temperatures
 Silicon (Si):- It increases tensile and yield strength, hardness, forge ability and magnetic
permeability.
 Tungsten (W):-Increases strength, wear resistance, hardness and toughness. Tungsten steels
have superior hot-working and greater cutting efficiency at elevated temperatures.
 Vanadium (V):-Increases strength, hardness, wear resistance and resistance to shock impact.
 Types of steel
 1. Carbon steel C. High carbon steel

A. Low carbon steel

 if the steel contains 0.55-1.33 % of carbon
then it is called as HCS
 if the steel contains 0.1-0.35 % of carbon
then it is called as LCS  Uses:
 Uses:  chisels
 gears  drill parts
 boiler plates  Composition of plain carbon and low
 cylinders shafts carbon steel
 ship body  Alloy 1006
B. Medium carbon steel Fe- 99.43, C-0.08, Mn-0.45, P-0.04, S-0.05
 if the steel contains 0.35-0.55 % of carbon  Alloy 1020
then it is called as MCS
Fe- 99.08, C- 0.17, Mn-0.3, P-0.04, S-0.05
 Uses:
 turbines
 Alloy 4027
 rails Fe-98.08, Mo-0.2, Si-0.15, C- 0.25, P-
 connecting rods
0.035, Mn-0.7, S-0.04
 2. Stainless steel

 Composition: Composition of stainless steel

Cr = 12 %,Ni = 2 % & C= 0.8%  Alloy 302

 Properties: Fe- 70, C-0.15, Cr-18, Mn-2, Ni-9, P-0.045, S-

0.03,Si-1
 This steel is a non magnetic material  Alloy 316
 It is having high résistance to corrosion Fe- 62, C-0.08, Cr-18, Mn-2, Ni-1.4, P-0.045,
 Uses: S-0.03,Si-1, Mo-2
 Dies
 Alloy 17-7 ph

 Valves Al-0.75, C-0.09, Cr-16, Mn-1, Ni-6.5, P-0.04,

S-0.04,Si-1
 Domastic applications
 Alloy 660
 Surgery equipment
Fe- 56,Al-0.035,B-0.001, C-0.08, Cr-13.5,Cu-
 Razer blades 0.25, Mn-2, Ni-24, P-0.04, S-0.03,Si-1,Ti-
1.9,V-0.1
3.Tool steel(or) high speed steel 4.High Strength Low alloy (HSLA)
 Composition: steel
W = 18 % ,Cr = 4 %,Vn = 1 % ,C= 0.6 %  Composition:
 Properties: C = 0.05-0.25 % ,Mn= 2 %
 It is having high compressive strength  Properties:
 It is having high wear resistance  It provides better mechanical properties
 It is having high hardness  It provides greater resistance to corrosion
 It is having high cutting ability  It provides high strength than any other steel
 Uses: Uses:
 Cutting tools  Cars
 Drill bits  trucks
 Reamer bits  Cranes
 Milling cutters  Roller coasters
5.Maragin steel Heat Treatment
 Maragine steels are carbon free iron-nickel  Objectives of Heat Treatment
alloy with additions of cobalt, The major objectives of heat treatment are
molibdinum, titanium and aluminium given as under
Composition: Ni=25 % 1. It relieves internal stresses induced during
Properties: hot or cold working.
 This is having good machinability 2. It changes or refines grain size.
 This is having good weldability 3. It increases resistance to heat and
corrosion.
 It is having high resistance to corrosion
4. It improves mechanical properties such as
Uses: ductility, strength, hardness, toughness, etc.
 Rocket and missile skin 5. It helps to improve machinability.
 Automatic weapons 6. It increases wear resistance
 Crankshaft 7. It removes gases.
 Gears and bicycle 8. . It improves weldability
 Different Types of Heat Treatment processes
1. Normalizing 1. NORMALIZING
2. Annealing. Normalizing is a defined as softening process in which iron
base alloys are heated 40 to 50°C above the upper-critical
3. Hardening.
limit for both hypo and hyper eutectoid steels and held
4. Tempering there for a specified period and followed by cooling in still
5. Case hardening air up to room temperature
Objectives
(a) Carburizing
1. To soften metals
(b) Cyaniding
2. Refine grain structure
(c) Nit riding
3. Improve machinability after forging and rolling
(d) Induction hardening,
4. Improve grain size
(e) Flame hardening.
5. Improve structure of weld
6. Prepare steel for sub heat treatment

2.ANNEALING
It is a softening process in which iron base
alloys are heated above the transformation range
held there for proper time and then cool slowly
(at the of rate of 30 to 150°C per hour) below
the transformation range in the furnace itself.
Objectives of Annealing
The purpose of annealing is to achieve the following
1. Soften the steel.
2. Relieve internal stresses
3. Reduce or eliminate structural in-homogeneity.
4. Refine grain size.
5. Improve machinability.
6. Increase or restore ductility and toughness.
Annealing is of two types
(a) Process annealing
(b) Full annealing
(a) In process annealing, ductility is increased with somewhat
decrease in internal stresses.
(b) full annealing of steel is to soften it and to refine its grain
structure.
3.HARDENING
Hardening is a hardness inducing kind of heat treatment process in
which steel is heated to a temperature above the critical point and
held at that temperature for a definite time and then quenched
rapidly in water, oil or molten salt bath.
4. TEMPERING
If high carbon steel is quenched for hardening in a bath, it becomes
extra hard, extra brittle and has unequal distribution internal stresses
and strain and hence unequal harness and toughness in structure.
These extra hardness, brittleness and unwanted induced stress and
strain in hardened metal reduce the usability the metal. Therefore,
these undesired needs must be reduced for by reheating and cooling
at constant bath temperature.
5.CASE HARDENING
The following are the case hardening process.
(1)Carburizing (3) Cyaniding
2) Nit riding (4) Induction hardening
(5) Flame hardening
1.Carburizing
Carburizing can be of three types
1. Pack carburizing
2. Liquid carburizing and
3. Gas carburizing
a. Pack carburizing:-Metals to be carburized such as low carbon steel is placed in cast
iron or steel boxes containing a rich material in carbon like charcoal, crushed bones,
potassium Ferro-cyanide or charred leather.
The boxes are heated to a temperature 900°C to 950°C according to type of steel for
absorbing carbon on the outer surface and Small gears are case hardened by this process
Depth of hardness from 0.8-1.6 mm is attained in three to four hours
b.Liquid carburizing:- it is carried out in a container filled with a molten salt, such as sodium
cyanide. This bath is heated by electrical immersion elements or by a gas burner and stirring is
done to ensure uniform temperature. This process gives a thin hardened layer up to 0.08 mm
thickness
 case-hardened are dipped into liquid bath solution containing calcium cyanide and
polymerized hydro-cyanide acid or sodium or potassium cyanide along-with some salt.
 Bath temperature is kept from 815°C to 900°C.
Advantages of Liquid carburizing
1. Greater depth of penetration possible in this process.
2. Selective carburizing is possible if needed.
3. Uniform heating will occur in this process.
4. Little deformation or distortion of articles occur in this process.
5. Ease of carburizing for a wider range of products.
6. It is time saving process.
(c) Gas Carburizing
 In gas carburizing method, the parts to be gas carburized are surrounded by a
hydrocarbon gas in the furnace.
 The common carburizing gases are methane, ethane, propane, butane and
carbon monoxide are used in this process.
 Average gas carburizing temperature usually varies from 870° to 950°C.
Thickness of case hardened portion up to 11 mm can be easily obtained in 6
hours
 heated again to form fine grain sized austenite and then quenched in water to
form marten site in surface layers.
2. Cyaniding
 Cyanide may also be used to case harden the steel. It is used to give a very
thin but hard outer case. Cyaniding is a case hardening process in which both
C and N2 in form of cyaniding salt are added to surface of low and medium
carbon steel
 The components to be case hardened are immersed in a bath having fused
sodium cyanide salts kept at 800-850°C.
 . Cyaniding process gives bright finishing on the product. In it, distortion can
be easily avoided and fatigue limit can be increased.
Application
 Cyaniding is generally applied to the low carbon steel parts of automobiles
(sleeves, brake cam, speed box gears, drive worm screws, oil pump gears
etc), motor cycle parts (gears, shaft, pins etc.) and agriculture machinery.
3.Nitriding
 Nit riding is a case hardening process in which nitrogen instead of carbon is
added to the outer skin of the steel.
 Nit riding is a special case hardening process of saturating the surface of steel
with nitrogen by holding it for prolonged period generally in electric furnace
at temperature from 480°C to 650°C in atmosphere of Ammonia gas (NH3).
Application
 Many automobile, diesel engines parts, pumps, shafts, gears, clutches, etc. are treated with
the nit riding process.
 This process is used for the parts which require high wear resistance at elevated
temperatures such as automobile and air plane valve’s and valve parts, piston pins,
crankshafts, cylinder liners etc. It is also used in ball and roller bearing parts die casting
dies, wire drawing dies etc.
4.Flame Hardening
 It consists of moving an oxyacetylene flame, over the part where hardening is
required. Immediately after this, the heated portion is quenched by means of water
spray or air passing over it
 The main advantages of the process is that a portion of metal can be hardened by
this process, leaving rest surface unaffected by confining the flame at relevant part
only where hardening is required.
5.Induction Hardening
 Induction hardening is accomplished by placing the part in a high frequency
alternating magnetic field. It differs from surface hardening in the way that
hardness of surface is not due to the increase in carbon content but due to rapid
heating followed by controlled quenching.
 In this process, a high frequency current is introduced in the metal surface and
its temperature is raised up to hardening range. As this temperature is attained,
the current supply is cut off instantaneously water is sprayed on the surface.
Advantages
 Induction hardening is comparatively quicker.. The operation is very fast and
comparatively large parts can be processed in a minimum time.
Application
 Induction hardening is widely used for hardening surfaces of crankshafts, cam
shafts, gear automobile components, spline shafts, spindles, brake drums etc
 Corrosion (or) Rust

Definition of corrosion:
 Corrosion is defined as "the degradation of materials by chemical reaction
with the environment in which the material resides." This is because of
metal oxidation.
 Corrosion is a disease for the metal
 It is an electro chemical attack on a metal by its surroundings
 It will start at one point and it will spread to all over the metal
 Due to this corrosion metal will become weak, it lost its hardness & weight
 Due to this corrosion metal loses its cross-sectional area
 This corrosion reduces the life span of the metal
 Formation of corrosion
 First water is reacted with iron. Due to this iron ions are formed.
 These iron ions are reacted with oxygen in the air& forms oxide.
 This oxide is called as corrosion (or) rust
 Due to this oxide electrons are formed
 Then these electrons are travelled throughout metal to spread the
corrosion
 In this entire process iron is acted as an anode and oxygen is acted as
a cathode.
 Water is acted as a medium to spread the corrosion
 Influencing factors for corrosion (or) reasons for corrosion

A. Metallurgical factors
Composition
Inclusions
Dissolved gasses
B. Environmental factors
Air
Water
moisture
Acids
Salt solutions
Soils
Industrial atmosphere
Temperature
Pollution
 Types of corrosion
1. Galvanic corrosion
2. Crevice corrosion
3. Pitting corrosion
4. Inter granular corrosion
5. Stress corrosion
6. High temperature corrosion
1. Galvanic corrosion
This corrosion occurs due to
 Contact between the two dissimilar metals
 Contact between the two electro potential metals
 Contact between the two dissimilar metals in the
presence of an electrolyte solution
 This corrosion develops deep pits & groves in the
surface
2. Crevice Corrosion:
 Crevice corrosion occurs in bolted joints, lap joints and threaded parts
 It is the result of concentration of salts, acids and moisture which results
in the formation of corrosion.
 A small anode is created in the crevice with the remainder of the body
acting as a large cathode so corrosion at the crevice is highly accelerated
as well as concentrated
3. Inter granular corrosion
 This corrosion starts from outside and it proceeds up to the grain
boundaries
4. Pitting corrosion
 Pitting corrosion is quite common on the metal surfaces .where there is no uniform
surface this pitting corrosion will occur.
 This corrosion is usually highly localized.
 Pitting usually proceeds fairly rapidly and is accelerated by the presence of chlorides

5. Stress Corrosion
 Stress corrosion is the product of tensile stress (including stress remaining after
fabrication) and localized corrosion and they produce a brittle cracking of metal
6. High Temperature corrosion
 Under very high temperature metals are reacted with oxygen that leads to formation of
corrosion.
 This type of corrosion is called as high temperature oxidation.