WK 6 - HVAC Liquid & Steam Distribution Systems 2T 2020-2021

ME116P
INDUSTRIAL PLANT
ENGINEERING
Liquid & Steam

Distribution WEEK 6
2020-2021/2T
Systems
Prepared by:
Engr. Manuel B. Rustria
January 14, 2021
Objectives
 Define head loss and pressure drop in the liquid distribution
piping network for the HVAC systems .
 Calculate head loss and pressure drop for a segment of a
piping system.
 Describe the water distribution and the steam distribution
piping networks for the HVAC systems.
 Solve problems involving piping design calculations for both
the water and the steam distribution systems.
Introduction
Introduction
 HVAC systems commonly contain piping networks in which
liquids are pumped to various locations. In chilled water air
conditioning systems, water is cooled in the evaporators of one
or more chillers and then distributed to many cooling coils
located throughout the building.
 Typically the cooling coils are piped in parallel. Such a chilled
water distribution network also has at least one pump and a
number of control valves to regulate the flows.
Introduction
 Hot water is often used to supply heat to commercial buildings.
 As in chilled water systems, there are typically one or more central
boilers that supply the heating, one or more pumps, a piping
network, and multiple terminal units, usually connected in parallel,
located in the different building zones.
 The design goal for both chilled and hot water systems is to
produce a network that provides the proper flow to each heat
exchangers with acceptable pressure drop and pump power.
Introduction
 Water networks are not the only fluid systems of interest to an
HVAC engineer.
 Natural gas and fuel oil are often piped into a building and
distributed to furnace and boilers.
 In some cooling systems, such as those in supermarkets,
refrigerants is distributed to evaporators that are located in
refrigerated cabinets far from the utility room that houses the
compressor and condenser, which necessities long lengths of
supply and return lines.
Introduction
 As with water systems, the need to distribute the refrigerant
with acceptable pressure drop and pumping power is a design
goal.
 In liquid distribution systems the fluid flow rate is dictated by the
cooling or heating requirements.
 In determining the size of piping to deliver the desired flow, the
fluid velocity is constrained by a number of considerations.
Head Loss and
Pressure Drop
in Liquid
Distribution Systems
Head Loss and Pressure Drop
 The methods for determining the losses in liquid distribution
systems are basically the same as for air distribution system,
because changes in elevation cause significant changes in
pressure, the head loss rather than pressure drop is a better
measure of the losses.
 The head relates to the mechanical energy of the system and is
the energy of the fluid per unit weight
 For a liquid flow, the head is given by

h= + +z
where h is the head and is measured in units of length such12.1 as
feet or meters, p is the static pressure, is the fluid density, g is
the gravitational attraction, V is the fluid velocity, and z is the
elevation above a datum.
 The first term on the right-hand side that contains the pressure is
termed pressure head, the second the velocity head, and the
third the elevation head.
 For flow in a fluid system, the head loss is the difference in head
between two sections.
 With the value of the head, the fluid pressure at any location in
the system can be determined.
 The mechanism of head loss and pressure drop in liquid systems

are the same as for air systems.

 The head loss due to viscous friction on the conduit walls is
given by equation 11.3:
hL = f
12.2
wherehLis the head loss, f is the friction factor, and DH is the
hydraulic diameter.
 In most liquid distribution systems the velocity is relatively low

(in the range of 10 ft/s or 3m/s), the flow is turbulent, and the
walls are rough.
 The approximate relation for the friction factor is equation 3.47:
f– 0.5= 1.14 + 2log – 2log
where is the height of the roughness elements on the walls. 12.3
 Values of roughness height are given in Table 3.3 (Mitchell, J.W.
& Braun, J.E. (2013). Principles of Heating, Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning in Buildings. New York: McGraw Hill) for different
pipe types.
 In many flow systems the head loss due to wall friction is
comparable to the losses due to fittings, and an accurate
determination of the friction factor is not necessary.
 Using a representative value of friction factor of 0.02 to 0.03 is
usually sufficiently accurate to estimate head loss.
 The head loss due to fittings is given by the same expression as

for air systems, equation 11-3:

hL = KL
12.4
where KL is a loss coefficient that depends on the type of fitting
and whether the system is constructed of threaded or flanged
piping.
 Systems made of small diameter pipes (less than about 2 to 4 in.
diameter) generally have threaded connections and those of
larger diameter generally have welded flange connections.
 A brief summary of the loss coefficients for the common fittings
in a liquid distribution system is given in Table 12.1. The larger
values are for smaller pipes.
 Example 12.1 illustrates the calculation of head loss and pressure

drop for a segment of a piping system that has elevation and
flow area changes.
Table 12.1 Representative loss coefficients for piping systems

Fitting type KL threaded KL flanged
Standard elbow 0.7 – 2.5 0.24 – 0.4
Tee—straight line 0.9 0.08 – 0.26
Tee—branch line 1.1 – 2.7 0.2 – 1.0
Gate valve 0.12 – 0.4 0.0 – 0.34
EXAMPLE
12.1
Water 60°F flows at 10 ft/s in a 3 in. diameter pipe that is 100 ft long. There
are six elbows (KL = 1) and two gate valves (KL = 0.3). The end of the pipe is
at elevation 20 ft above the inlet. The pressure at the inlet is 50 psia. The
roughness height is 0.0002 ft. Determine the head at the inlet, head loss,
pressure drop due to losses, and absolute pressure at the end.
Results
The head at the pipe inlet is the sum of the pressure, velocity, and elevation
heads, which are 115.3 ft, 1.5 ft, and 0 ft, respectively. The velocity head is
small and is often neglected in determining the pressure in distribution
system.
EXAMPLE
12.1
The Reynolds number is 207,000 and in the turbulent range. The friction
factor is 0.020 and the friction head loss is 12.5 ft. The fitting head loss is
10.3 and is of comparable magnitude to the friction loss. The total head
loss is 22.8 ft.
The head at the end of the pipe equals that at the inlet minus the head loss,
and equals 94.1 ft. At the exit, the velocity head is the same as the inlet at
1.5 ft and the elevation head is 20 ft. The exit pressure head is then 72.5 ft,
corresponding to a pressure of 31.5 psia.
EXAMPLE
12.1
The pressure drop due to losses is determined by converting the head loss
to a pressure drop head. The pressure drop due to losses is 9.9 psi. This
drop is not equal to the difference between the pressure at the inlet and
end of the pipe, which is 18.5 psi. In liquid system the pressure difference
throughout the network is not a good indication of losses if there are
elevation changes.
 Example 12.1 illustrates several characteristics of liquid
distribution systems.
 The head loss due to friction and fittings are of comparable
magnitude.
 A value of the friction factor of 0.02 to 0.03 is probably
sufficiently accurate, give the uncertainties in a pipe network
geometry.
 The velocity head is usually small relative to the pressure and
elevation heads.
 Finally, the pressure differences in a system are not an indication
of losses when there is an effect of elevation on pressure.
Water Distribution
Systems
Water Distribution Systems
 In an HVAC system, the power for the pumps to distribute water
flow is generally much smaller than either that for fans which
circulate air or the compressors which circulate refrigerant.
 The density of water is about three orders of magnitude greater
than that of air and the velocities are of the same magnitude.
 Thus, to carry the same flow energy, the volume flow rates are
correspondingly smaller for water than for air.
 Because pressure drop is proportional to density, the pressure
drops in liquid systems are usually much larger than those for air
systems.
 And the power for pumps in a system is generally smaller than
that of fans.
 In engineering units, air pressure drops are expressed in terms of
inches of water, while liquid pressure drops are expressed in feet
of water (head) or pounds-force per square inch (psi), where one
psi corresponds to about 28 in. of water.
 A major consideration in a water distribution system is to reduce
excessive noise.
 Noise generally results from a combination of air in the water,
rapid pressure drops that occur due to flow through restrictions,
and turbulence.
 Flow separation may occur at sharp bends, where the flow
becomes unsteady and noisy.
 Cavitation may occur in locations where the flow area decreases,
the velocity increases, and the static pressure drops a low value.
 Air may come out of solution and form bubbles, and vapor
bubbles may even form in the pressure is below the saturation
pressure.
 The collapse of these bubbles as the pressure rises downstream
creates noise.
 Water hammer is the result of a rapid deceleration of a water
flow that occurs when, for example, a valve closes.
 The resulting rapid pressure rise creates pressure waves that
transmit noise throughout the system.
 A system with many fittings and turns is likely to be noisier than
one that is straight with few changes in diameter.
 Erosion is another design consideration. Air bubbles, sand, or
other particles carried by the flow create erosion that wears
away the inner surface of the pipes. Generally, erosion is a
greater problem in systems with high flow velocities.
 The maximum water velocity based on noise and erosion
considerations is 15 ft/s (5 m/s, ASHRAE, 2009, Carrier, 1974).
 For general service applications such as chilled and hot water
systems, the recommended range for velocity is 4 to 10 ft/s (1.2
to 3 m/s).
 Considering both pressure drop and noise leads to maximum
velocity of about 4 ft/s (1.2 m/s) for pipes that are 2 inches in
diameter (50 mm) and smaller.
 For larger diameter pipes the maximum velocity is based on a
pressure drop limit of 4 ft of head per 100 ft of length which
corresponds to s pressure drop of about 1.7 psi per 100 ft (.4
kPa/m).
 These are general guidelines that, if followed, have been found
to lead to satisfactory designs of water distribution systems.
 In designing a water distribution system, the absolute value of
the pressure is important.
 If the pressure is below atmospheric, air could leak into the
system, which would be detrimental to the performance of
pumps and heat exchangers.
 If the pressure drops below the vapor pressure the water may
flash into steam.
 Water systems are designed so that the lowest pressure is above
atmospheric pressure. The pressure should not be so high that
high-pressure tanks and piping are needed.
 A chilled water network with two cooling coils connected in
parallel to the main supply return pipes, as shown in Figure 12.1,
will be used to illustrate the design methodology for piping
systems.
 The water flow first enters the evaporator, where it is cooled.
 The chilled water is then pumped to the two cooling coils.
 Control valves at each coil modulate the flow of water through
each coil.
 A length of pipe with a relief valve is located at the end of the
circuit so that there is always flow of water through the tubes of
the evaporator under conditions of light load, which minimizes
the chance of water freezing in the evaporator.
 An expansion tank is installed to accommodate changes in the
total volume of the water as the temperature changes.
 The tank could be either open to the atmosphere or closed and
partially filled with air.
 The design goal for such a system is to specify the flow rates,
pressures, pipe sizes, and pump capacity at design conditions.
 A sample design calculation is given in Example 12.2
Figure 12.1 Chilled water system with 2 coils

EXAMPLE Determine the flow rates (gpm), pressures, pipe diameters, and
12.2 pump power (hp) for the chilled water system of Figure 12.1.
The design loads are 50 tons on coil 1 and 100 tons on coil 2.
The temperature for the chilled water is 42°F and the design
temperature rise through each coil is 5°F. The length of pipe
between the evaporator and coil 1 is 50 ft and from coil 1 to coil
2 is 100 ft. The pressure drop across each coil is 4 psi and is 10
psi across the evaporator. Each section of pipe has ten fittings
with a total loss coefficient of 6. The pressure leaving the pump
is 50 psia and the pump efficiency is 0.7. The coils are located 10
ft above the distribution pipes. The important steps in the
calculation are shown.
EXAMPLE Results
12.2 Using the same procedure as for the first sections of the system
(locations 1, 2, and 3), the pressure at the other locations were
calculated and shown on the figure below. All the pressures are
above atmospheric and the supply pressure of 50 psia is
sufficient. The pressure difference due to the elevation of the
coils above the supply system is 4.3 psi.
EXAMPLE
12.2
EXAMPLE Results
12.2 The values of head are in the table below. They show more
clearly the losses and also that the pressure rises in the flow
direction as from locations 4 to 6 and 8 to 9 are due to elevation
changes. The velocity head is less than 1 ft. corresponding to
less than 0.4 psi, and is neglected in determining the head values
at the different locations.
EXAMPLE Location
Results Head (ft) Location Head (ft) Location Head (ft)
12.2 1 116.1 5 83.2 9 91.5
2 109.0 6 83.2 10 76.2
3 100.7 7 100.7 11 53.1
4 92.4 8 91.5
EXAMPLE Results
12.2 The values of head are in the table below. They show more
clearly the losses and also that the pressure rises in the flow
direction as from locations 4 to 6 and 8 to 9 are due to elevation
changes. The velocity head is less than 1 ft. corresponding to
less than 0.4 psi, and is neglected in determining the head values
at the different locations.
Steam Distribution
Systems
Steam Distribution Systems
 Steam is often employed to provide heat to the zones in
commercial buildings.
 The steam may be sent either to heating coils that are located in
the air handlers or to heat exchangers mounted around the
periphery of the zones (termed baseboard heaters).
 The steam used for heating commercial buildings is usually at a
low pressures, typically below 15 psig (100 kPa above
atmospheric or 200kPa absolute).
 Industrial heating systems often use high-pressure steam that is
in the range of 15 to 150 psig (100 to 1000 kPa absolute pressure).
 In a steam system the boiler is usually located at the lowest
elevation (e.g. basement) and the steam is then pumped to heat
exchangers in the floors above.
 The steam condenses into liquid in each heat exchanger,
providing heat to the zones.
 Traps are located at the outlet of each exchanger to ensure that
only liquid enters the condensate lines.
 The liquid condensate then flows to the pump, often located at
the lowest point of the system and near the boiler, where it is
then increased in pressure and sent to the boiler.
 A steam system that is configured in the same manner as a
chilled water system, with large pipes that distribute the steam
to the coils and smaller ones that allow the condensate to
return, is termed a two-pipe system.
Two-pipe System
 Since the density of the condensate is much higher that that of
the vapor, it is usually possible to return the condensate to the
boiler through the action of gravity alone.
 A common arrangement is to use a single pipe that connects the
boiler to the heat exchangers.
 Steam flows upward through the pipe and the condensate flows
downward along the wall. Such a system is termed a single-pipe
system.
Single-pipe
System
 As for water systems, the selection criteria for pipe sizes includes
both noise and pressure drop criteria. For quiet operation the
velocity of the steam should be in the range of 100 to 200 ft/s
(30 to 60 m/s, ASHRAE, 2009).
 In single-pipe systems the steam velocity is limited further by the
interactions between the supply steam and the returning
condensate. Too high a velocity can impede the return flow of
the condensate. Depending on the pipe diameter the allowable
steam velocities for single pipe systems are in the range of 10 to
30 ft/s (3 to 10 m/s).
 The criterion for the allowable pressure drop depends on the
pressure of the steam system. Low-pressure steam has a lower
density than high-pressure steam and therefore the power in a
low-pressure system would be significantly greater than that for
a high-pressure system for the same pressure drop and flow
rate.
 The allowable pressure drop increases with the absolute
pressure in the system.
 Selected values for the allowable pressure drops per unit pipe
length are given in Table 12.2 for different steam pressure levels.
Table 12.2 Recommended pressure drops for steam distribution systems
Steam pressure Allowable pressure Steam pressure Allowable pressure
(psig) drop (psi/100 ft) (kPa gage) drop (Pa/m)
0 0.03 7 30
5 0.25 15 30
10 0.5 35 60
15 1 70 115
50 2-5 200 450
100 2-5 700 450-1,100
150 2-10 1,000 450-2,300
 The pressure drops in Table 12.2 include the losses due to
fittings.
 In sizing steam systems, it is conventional to add an equivalent
length of pipe that gives the same pressure drop as the fitting
rather than calculate the fitting loss. Elbows add a length that is
roughly equivalent to two diameters of pipe, tees add four
diameters, and glove valves add about 25 diameters.
 It is often assumed that the total equivalent length added due to
fittings is about equal to the actual length. The system is then
sized using a pipe length that is twice the actual length.
 The steam in a heating system is a vapor with a very low density
compared to liquid water and it flows at a relatively low velocity.
 The main contribution to the head for a steam flow is the
pressure, and as a result the design of a steam system is similar
to that for air distribution system.
 The effects of elevation change are small relative to the pressure
drops due to friction and valves.
 A sample design of a steam system is given in Example 12.3.
Example 12.3
A boiler that delivers steam at a pressure of 50 kPa gage is connected to
two heating coils as shown below. The first coil is located 25 m from the
boiler and the design heating load is 200 kW. The second coil is located
50 m past the first coil and has a design load of 400 kW. Neglecting the
pressure drop for the coils, determine the required supply and return pipe
sizes and the pump power.
Example 12.3
Example 12.3
Results
The diameters were determine using the pressure drop and flow velocity
criteria. Pipes with standard diameters would be used in the system. For
the supply line line, a DN 125 pipe (nominal 5 in. diameter) with an inner
diameter of 128.2 mm would be used for the first segment and a DN of 90
pipe (nominal 3-1/2 in. diameter) with a 90.1 mm inner diameter for the
second. For the return pipes, both sections a DN 15 pipe (nominal ½ in.)
with an inner diameter of 20.9 would be used. The pressures in the
system were recalculated with these standard diameters.
Example 12.3
Results
The pressure throughout the system are shown in the figure below for a
design using standard pipe diameters. It is assumed that there are no
pressure drops through the coils, which is a valid assumption at design
conditions. Control values would be needed to reduce the flow to meet
the bearing loads in off-design conditions.
Example 12.3
Results
Although the pressure drops on the condensate side are relatively large,
the pump power is only 18 W since the power to pump a liquid is
considerably less than that to pump a vapor. There would also be a
pressure drop through the boiler and a large power pump would probably
be installed.
The saturation temperature of the steam in the coils is slightly lower than
that at the boiler due to the pressure drops. However the temperature
differences are 1 to 2°C and would have little effect on the heat transfer
surface required for the coils.
Example 12.3
Results
Although the pressure drops on the condensate side are relatively large,
the pump power is only 18 W since the power to pump a liquid is
considerably less than that to pump a vapor. There would also be a
pressure drop through the boiler and a large power pump would probably
be installed.
The saturation temperature of the steam in the coils is slightly lower than
that at the boiler due to the pressure drops. However the temperature
differences are 1 to 2°C and would have little effect on the heat transfer
surface required for the coils.
Example 12.3
Results
Problems
A flow of 125 gpm of chilled water at 45°F is to be
transported from a chiller to a set of cooling coils
P
located 120 ft away. Select a pipe diameter that
12.1 satisfies the requisite criteria and determine the head
loss and pressure drop.
P
12.2
A chilled water system is to be designed as laid out in
Problem 12.2 Figure. The supply temperature is 5°C, the
P
design load on the first coil is 50 kW, and that on the
12.2 second is 100 kW. The temperature rise through each coil
is 5°C. The take-off to the first coil is located 25 m from
the pump, and that to the second coil is 50 m from the
first. The sum of the loss coefficients is 7 for each section
of the supply and return flows, and the loss coefficients
for the coils are included in the coil pressure drop. The
loss coefficient for the tee is 0.4, with the velocity
pressure that of the common (combined) stream.
At rated conditions the pressure drop across the
evaporator is 75 kPa and across each coil is 25 kPa. The
P
pressure drop at off-design conditions is proportional to
12.2 the square of the mass flow rate. Assume a value for the
friction factor of 0.025. The flow through the section of
the pipe with the relief valve is 5% of the design value.
a. Determine the required pipe sizes, the design
pressure drop, the pressure drop across the valve
P
for coil 1, and the design pump power.
12.2
b. Determine and plot the head loss and pressure
drop-flow rate characteristics of the system as the
loads on the coils decrease from the design values
of zero.
c. Draw some conclusions from your results.
A low-pressure steam-having system designed for a
building delivers heat to a heating coil at a temperature of
P
220°F. The coil is located 75 feet from the boiler is
12.3 designed for a heating rate of 100,000 Btu/hr. Determine
the pipe size that meets the design criteria and the total
pressure drop.
A medium-pressure steam system transfers steam at 500
kPa gage to a condenser for use in producing hot water.
P
The condenser is located 110 m from the boiler. The
12.4 design heating load is 200kW.
a. Determine the pipe size that meets the design
criteria and the total pressure drop.
b. The steam runs through a space that is at a 20°C
temperature. Determine the insulation requirement
to limit the heat loss to 1% of the condenser heat
transfer.
A boiler that delivers steam at a pressure of 25 psig is
connected to two heating coils as shown in Problem 12.5
P
Figure. The first coil is designed for 800,000 Btu/hr of
12.5 heating and is located 120 ft from the boiler. The second
coil is designed for 400,000 Btu/hr and is located 50 ft
past the first coil. The sum of the loss coefficients
effectively doubles the length of the piping. Determine
the required supply and return pipe sizes and pump
power.
Problem 12.5
Hot water in the heating loop of a commercial building
flows through a 100 mm diameter pipe at a rate of 25 L/s
P
and a temperature of 60°C. The water leaves the pump,
12.6 flows through the hot water boiler, 50 m of piping loop,
and the heating element, and then returns through 50 m
of pipe to the pump. The boiler has a pressure drop of
25kPa. The heating element is located at an elevation 10
m above the pump and has a pressure drop of 75 kPa. It
is desirable that the lowest pressure in the loop be 50 kPa
above atmospheric to avoid air leaking into the system.
a. Determine the heads and pressures throughout the
system.
P
12.6 b. Determine the head loss (m) and pump power.
c. Determine the pump power for morning startup
with a water temperature of 15°C.
d. Draw some conclusions from your analysis.
In a supermarket refrigeration system, the evaporator is
located in the display cases while the rest of the
P
refrigeration system is in the equipment room. A 2 in.
12.7 diameter pipe that is 75 ft long connects the two. The
pipe passes through the store, which is at 70°F. The flow
rate of the saturated R-22 refrigerant vapor leaving the
evaporator is 600lb/hr and the temperature is 25°F.
Determine the thickness of insulation needed to have less
than 10°F superheating of the vapor when it enters the
compressor.
REFERENCE:
Mitchell, J.W. & Braun, J.E.
(2013). Principles of Heating,
Ventilation, and Air
Conditioning in Buildings. New
York: McGraw Hill.
END.

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ME116P

Liquid & Steam

 For a liquid flow, the head is given by

 The mechanism of head loss and pressure drop in liquid systems

are the same as for air systems.

 In most liquid distribution systems the velocity is relatively low

 The head loss due to fittings is given by the same expression as

for air systems, equation 11-3:

 Example 12.1 illustrates the calculation of head loss and pressure

Table 12.1 Representative loss coefficients for piping systems

Figure 12.1 Chilled water system with 2 coils

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