ADVANCED THERMODYNAMICS

& HEAT ENGINES

M Sc in Mechanical System Design &

Engineering

Revision of Basic Thermodynamics

Pure Substance
For most of the thermodynamic analysis, we assume the working
substance as a pure substance. A system is said to be composed of
pure substance if it is
• homogeneous in composition
• homogeneous in chemical aggregation, and
• invariable in chemical aggregation

State Postulate
Two independent thermodynamic properties are sufficient to
establish a stable thermodynamic state of a system composed of a
pure substance.

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Two Phase (Liquid and Vapor) Systems
Saturation Curve on T-v Diagram (P = Constant)

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Saturation Curve on P-v Diagram (T = Constant)

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Saturation Temperature
For a given pressure, the temperature at which phase change (liquid
to vapor or vapor to liquid) occurs is called a saturation temperature.
For example, if we heat water at 1atm, evaporation takes place at
1000C, i.e., saturation temperature for 1 atm is 1000C.
Saturation Pressure
For a given temperature, the pressure at which phase change (liquid
to vapor or vapor to liquid) occurs is called a saturation pressure. For
example, if we expand water at 1000C, evaporation takes place 1 atm
at, i.e., saturation pressure for 1000C is 1 atm.
Saturated Liquid
The state of a substance at which evaporation just starts (during
heating) or condensation just completes (during cooling) is called
the saturated liquid.
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Saturated Vapor
The state of a substance at which evaporation just completes (during
heating) or condensation just starts (during cooling) is called the
saturated vapor.
Compressed Liquid or Subcooled Liquid
When saturated liquid is further cooled or compressed, it is called a
compressed liquid or subcooled liquid.

Superheated Vapor
When saturated vapor is further heated or expanded, it is called a
superheated vapor.

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Degree of Superheat
The difference in temperature of a superheated vapor and the
corresponding saturation temperature is called degree of superheat.

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Critical Point
The state of a substance at which saturated liquid and saturated vapor
have identical properties is called a critical point. The pressure and
temperature corresponding to critical point are called critical pressure
and critical temperature respectively.

For H2O, critical pressure and critical temperature are 22.055 MPa
and 3730C. If we H2O at 22.055 MPa it suddenly gets converted into
saturated vapor from saturated liquid when temperature reaches
3730C.

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Properties of a Two-Phase Mixture

State 1: 1 atm, 800C State 2: 1 atm, 1000C State 3: 1 atm, 1200C

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State 4: 1.2 atm, 1000C

State 5: 1 atm, 1000C

State 6: 0.8 atm, 1000C
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Hence, for a given pressure, if temperature is less than the saturation
temperature, its state will be a compressed or subcooled liquid and if
temperature is higher than the saturation temperature, the state will
be a superheated vapor.

Hence, for a given temperature, if pressure is higher than the

saturation pressure, its state will be a compressed or subcooled
liquid and if pressure is less than the saturation pressure, the state
will be a superheated vapor.

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Quality
For two-phase mixture (saturation) region, pressure and temperature
are no more independent, and we cannot fix the state with dependent
pressure and temperature.

To fix the state within the saturation region, we have to use a new
property called quality. Quality is defined as the ratio of mass of
saturated vapor and the total mass of the two phase mixture. It is
also called dryness fraction and is denoted by x.

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21
Specific Properties of a Two-Phase Mixture
Specific properties of the two-phase mixture can be expressed in
term of quality. For example, specific volume of a two phase
mixture is given by the ratio of total volume of two-phase mixture
and the total mass of the two phase mixture, i.e.

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Other specific properties of the two-phase mixture can be expressed
in the similar manner as

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Development of Property Data
Properties of a substance at within saturation region or near
saturation region cannot be determined using the mathematical
equations (e.g. ideal gas equation). Hence, properties under such
conditions are determined experimentally and presented in the form
of tables or charts.

Property tables can be used to determine the property of a substance

for a particular state.

Property charts can be used to determine the properties for a

particular state as well as process can also be plotted.

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Heat Engine
Device which operates on a cyclic process and converts heat energy
into mechanical work is called a heat engine.

Figure shows a schematic representation of a

heat engine which takes QH amount of heat
from a high temperature reservoir at TH (source)
converts some part of it into work (W) and
rejects remaining part QL to a low temperature
reservoir at TL (sink).
Performance of a heat engine is measured by its
efficiency, which is defined as the ratio of work
output and the heat supplied,

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Heat Pump
Heat pump is a device, operating on a cyclic
process, which takes heat from a low temperature
reservoir at TL (surroundings) and delivers it to a
high temperature TH (desired space) with the help
of external work. Heat pump maintains the
temperature of a desired space higher than that of
the surroundings.
Performance of a heat pump is measured by its coefficient of
performance, which is defined as the ratio of desired effect and the
work supplied,

In case of heat pump, desired effect is the amount of heat supplied to

the desired space (QH), i.e.
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Refrigerator
Refrigerator is a device, operating on a cyclic
process, which takes heat from a low temperature
reservoir at TL (desired space) and delivers it to a
high temperature TH (surroundings) with the help of
external work. Refrigerator maintains the
temperature of a desired space lower than that of
the surroundings.

Performance of a refrigerator is also measured by its coefficient of

performance, and in case of refrigerator, desired effect is the amount
of heat taken out from the desired space (QL), i.e.

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