UNIT 1

1. Basic concept of Refrigeration, Air Conditioning and Heat

Pumps

1.1. Introduction

1.2. The Fundamental Principles of thermodynamics

1.3. Difference Between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump
1.4. Heat and Enthalpy
1.5. Boiling Point
1.6. General Gas Laws
1.7. The Pressure – Enthalpy Chart
1.8. Types of Refrigeration System
1.9. Refrigeration Terminologies
1.10. The Refrigeration Cycle
 1.1 Introduction
Refrigeration: The process of removing heat.

Air-conditioning: A form of air treatment whereby

temperature, humidity, ventilation, and air cleanliness are
all controlled within limits determined by the
requirements of the air conditioned enclosure.

Heat Pump: A device which extracts energy from a

source at low temperature and makes it available as
useful heat energy at a higher temperature.
Refrigeration is the action of cooling, and in practice this
requires removal of heat and discarding it at a higher
temperature.

Refrigeration is therefore the science of moving heat

from low temperature to high temperature.

In addition to chilling and freezing applications,

refrigeration technology is applied in air conditioning and
heat pumps, which therefore fall within the scope of this
contexts.
Refrigeration

The cooling effect of the process of extracting heat from

a lower temperature heat source, a substance or cooling
medium, and transferring to a higher temperature heat
sink, to maintain the temperature of the heat source
below that of surroundings.

Refrigeration systems

Combination of components, equipment & piping

connected to produce the refrigeration effect.
Refrigeration can offer cooling, dehumidifying, and also heating
(by heat pump) for air conditioning.

 Common space & product temperatures

Air Conditioning = 24 °C

High temperature refrigeration = 12°C

Industrial, food,
Medium temperature refrigeration = 2°C
cold chain,
Low temperature refrigeration = -23°C medicine,

Extra low temperature refrigeration =-32°C cryogenics

 1.2 The Fundamental Principles of
thermodynamics
 Temperature, Work and Heat

The temperature scale now in general use is the Celsius scale, based
nominally on the melting point of ice at 0°C and the boiling point of
water at atmospheric pressure at 100°C.

The law of conservation of energy tells us that when work and heat
energy are exchanged there is no net gain or loss of energy. However,
the amount of heat energy that can be converted into work is limited.

As the heat flows from hot to cold, a certain amount of energy may
be converted into work and extracted. For example, it can be used to
drive a generator.
The minimum amount of work to drive a refrigerator can be

defined in terms of the absolute temperature scale. Fig.1.1 shows a

reversible engine E driving a reversible heat pump P, Q and W

represent the flow of heat and work.

They are called reversible machines because they have the highest

efficiency that can be visualized, and because there are no losses, E

and P are identical machines.

Figure 1.1 Ideal heat engine, E, driving an ideal refrigerator (heat pump), P.
 The relationship between 𝑄1, 𝑄2 and W depends only on
the temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.

The ideal ‘never-attainable-in-practice’ ratio of work

output to heat input (𝑊/𝑄1) of the reversible engine E
equals:

 Temperature Difference (𝑇1− 𝑇0 )divided by the Hot

Reservoir Temperature (𝑇1). W necessary to lift a quantity
of heat 𝑄2 from temperature 𝑇0 to temperature 𝑇1 is given
by:
In the above Figure the device P can be any refrigeration
device we care to invent, and the work of Kelvin tells us that
the minimum work, W necessary to lift a quantity of heat "Q"
_"2" from temperature 𝑇0 to temperature 𝑇1 is given by:

Refrigeration ‘efficiency’ is usually defined as the heat

extracted divided by the work input.

This is called COP, coefficient of performance.

The ideal or Carnot COP takes its name from Sadi Carnot
and is given by:
Figure 1.2. Difference Between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator and Heat Pump

Example 1.1

Heat is to be removed at a temperature of -5°C and rejected at a

temperature of 35°C. What is the Carnot or Ideal COP? [Convert
the temperatures to absolute: -5°C becomes 268 K and 35°C
becomes 308 K (to the nearest K)].
1.3 Difference Between a Heat Engine, Refrigerator and
Heat Pump
In a heat engine, as shown in Fig. (a). the heat supplied to the
engine is converted into useful work.

If 𝑄_2 is the heat supplied to the engine and 𝑄_1 is the heat
rejected from the engine, then the net work done by the engine is
given by:
1.4. Refrigeration and Heat Pump
 Heat and Enthalpy

Heat is one of the many forms of energy and is commonly

generated from chemical sources.

The heat of a body is its thermal or internal energy, and a

change in this energy may show as a change of temperature or
a change between the solid, liquid and gaseous states.

Matter may also have other forms of energy, potential or

kinetic, depending on pressure, position and movement.
Enthalpy is the sum of its internal energy and flow work and is
given by:
Enthalpy may be expressed as a total above absolute zero, or
any other base which is convenient.

 If a change of enthalpy can be sensed as a change of

temperature, it is called sensible heat.

This is expressed as specific heat capacity, that is, the change in

enthalpy per degree of temperature change, in kJ/(kg K).

 If there is no change of temperature but a change of state (solid

to liquid, liquid to gas, or vice versa) it is called latent heat.

This is expressed as kJ/kg but it varies with the boiling

temperature, and so is usually qualified by this condition.
 Figure 1.3 Change of temperature (K) and state of water with enthalpy.
Example 1.2

The specific enthalpy of water at 80°C, taken from 0°C

base, is 334.91 kJ/kg. What is the average specific heat
capacity through the range 0–80°C?

Example 1.3

If the latent heat of boiling water at 1.013 bar is 2257

kJ/kg, the quantity of heat which must be added to 1 kg
of water at 30°C in order to boil it is:
1.5 Boiling Point

The temperature at which a liquid boils is not constant,

but varies with the pressure.

Thus, whilst the boiling point of water is commonly

taken as 100°C, this is only true at a pressure of one
standard atmosphere (1.013 bar) and, by varying the
pressure, the boiling point can be changed (Table 1.1).
Table 1.1 Boiling point of water at different pressures
Figure 1.4 Change of state with pressure and temperature
The boiling point is limited by the critical temperature
at the upper end, beyond which it cannot exist as a
liquid, and by the triple point at the lower end, which
is at the freezing temperature.

 Between these two limits, if the liquid is at a pressure

higher than its boiling pressure, it will remain a liquid
and will be subcooled below the saturation condition,
while if the temperature is higher than saturation, it
will be a gas and superheated.
If both liquid and vapour are at rest in the same
enclosure, and no other volatile substance is present, the
condition must lie on the saturation line.

At a pressure below the triple point pressure, the solid can
change directly to a gas (sublimation) and the gas can change
directly to a solid, as in the formation of carbon dioxide snow
from the released gas.

The liquid zone to the left of the boiling point line is

subcooled liquid.

The gas under this line is superheated gas.

1.6 General Gas Laws

Boyle’s law states that, for an ideal gas, the product of

pressure and volume at constant temperature is a
constant:

Example 1.4

A volume of an ideal gas in a cylinder and at atmospheric

pressure is compressed to half the volume at constant
temperature. What is the new pressure?
 Charles’ law states that, for an ideal gas, the volume at
constant pressure is proportional to the absolute
temperature:

 Example 1.5

 A mass of an ideal gas occupies 0.75 m3 at 20°C and is heated

at constant pressure to 90°C. What is the final volume?
Boyle’s and Charles’ laws can be combined into the ideal gas
equation:

𝑝𝑉= (𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡)∗𝑇

The constant is mass × R, where R is the specific gas constant, so:

𝑝𝑉=𝑚𝑅𝑇

Example 1.6: What is the volume of 5 kg of an ideal gas, having a

specific gas constant of 287 J/(kg K), at a pressure of one standard
atmosphere and at 25°C?
Dalton’s law

Dalton’s Law of partial pressures considers a mixture of two or

more gases, and states that the total pressure of the mixture is
equal to the sum of the individual pressures, if each gas separately
occupied the space.

Example 1.7 A cubic meter of air contains 0.906 kg of nitrogen

of specific gas constant 297 J/(kg K), 0.278 kg of oxygen of specific
gas constant 260 J/(kg K) and 0.015 kg of argon of specific gas
constant 208 J/(kg K). What will be the total pressure at 20°C?
1.7The Pressure – Enthalpy Chart

In order to study the properties of a fluid in the region of interest,

refrigeration engineers use a pressure – enthalpy or P–h Diagram.

This diagram is a useful way of describing the liquid and gas phase
of a substance.

On the vertical axis is pressure, P, usually on a logarithmic scale,

and on the horizontal, h, enthalpy.

The saturation curve defines the boundary of pure liquid and pure
gas, or vapor.
Figure 1.5 The P–h diagram. (a) Definitions, (b) constant pressure
process, (c) constant enthalpy process, (d) compression process
Figure 1.6 A pressure-enthalpy or Mollier chart for R717
(Ammonia), showing processes described in the text.
At pressures above the top of the curve, there is no distinction
between liquid and vapor.

 Above this pressure the gas cannot be liquefied.

 This is called the critical pressure.

In the two-phase region beneath the curve, there is a mixture of

liquid and vapor.
1.8 Types of Refrigeration System
A refrigeration system is a combination of components and
equipment connected in a sequential order to produce the
refrigeration effect.

The refrigeration systems commonly used for air conditioning can

be classified by the type of input energy and the refrigeration
process as follows:

1- Vapor compression systems:

In vapor compression systems, compressors activate the

refrigerant by compressing it to a higher pressure and higher
temperature level after it has produced its refrigeration effect.
The compressed refrigerant transfers its heat to the sink and is
condensed to liquid form.

 This liquid refrigerant is then throttled to a low-pressure, low

temperature vapor to produce refrigerating effect during
evaporation.

Vapor compression systems are the most widely adopted

refrigeration systems in both comfort and process air conditioning.

2- Absorption systems:

In an absorption system, the refrigeration effect is produced by

thermal energy input.
After absorbing heat from the cooling medium during evaporation, the
vapor refrigerant is absorbed by an absorbent medium.

This solution is then heated by direct-fired furnace, waste heat, hot

water, or steam.

The refrigerant is again vaporized and then condensed to liquid to begin

the refrigeration cycle again.

3- Air or gas expansion systems:

 In an air or gas expansion system, air or gas is compressed to a high

pressure by mechanical energy. It is then cooled and expanded to a low
pressure.

Because the temperature of air or gas drops during expansion, a

refrigeration effect is produced.
 1.9 Refrigeration Terminologies
Refrigerants, Cooling Media, and Liquid Absorbents

Refrigerants:

 A refrigerant is the primary working fluid used for absorbing and

transmitting heat in a refrigeration system.

Refrigerants absorb heat at a low temperature and low pressure

and release heat at a higher temperature and pressure.

Most refrigerants undergo phase changes during heat absorption,

evaporation, and heat releasing, condensation.
Cooling Media:

 A cooling medium is the working fluid cooled by the refrigerant to

transport the cooling effect between a central plant and remote
cooling units and terminals.

In a large, centralized system, it is often more economical to use a

coolant medium that can be pumped to remote locations where
cooling is required.

Chilled water, brine, and glycol are used as cooling media in many
refrigeration systems.

 The cooling medium is often called a secondary refrigerant,

because it obviates extensive circulation of the primary refrigerant.
Liquid Absorbents:

A solution known as liquid absorbent is often used to absorb the

vaporized refrigerant (water vapor) after its evaporation in an
absorption refrigeration system.

This solution, containing the absorbed vapor, is then heated at high

pressure.

The refrigerant vaporizes, and the solution is restored to its

original concentration for reuse.

Lithium bromide and ammonia, both in a water solution, are the

liquid absorbents used most often in absorption refrigerating
systems.
1.10The Refrigeration Cycle
1. Carnot Refrigeration Cycle

Carnot developed an ideal heat engine cycle, which is reversible,

i.e., if the balance of pressures is altered, the cycle of operation is
reversed.

The efficiency of this cycle, known as the Carnot cycle, is a

function only of the reservoir temperatures.

The Carnot cycle, since it is reversible, is the most efficient

possible, and thus is the standard to which all real cycles are
compared.

 An ideal refrigeration cycle is a Carnot cycle operated in reverse.

An ideal refrigeration cycle is a Carnot cycle operated in reverse.

In this cycle a unit mass of fluid is subjected to four processes after
which it returns to its original state.

 It consumes work, and has the net effect of removing heat from
the low temperature reservoir at temperature Tl, and rejecting it to
the high temperature reservoir at temperature Th.

The compression and expansion processes, shown as vertical lines,

take place at constant entropy.

A constant entropy (isentropic) process is a reversible or an ideal

process.
Figure 1.7The ideal reversed Carnot cycle: (a) circuit and (b)
temperature–entropy diagram.
2. Simple Vapor Compression Cycle
The vapor compression cycle is used for refrigeration in preference
to gas cycles; making use of the latent heat enables a far larger
quantity of heat to be extracted for a given refrigerant mass flow
rate.

This makes the equipment

as compact as possible.

Figure 1.8 Evaporation and condensation of a fluid.

A liquid boils and condenses – the change between the liquid and
the gaseous states – at a temperature which depends on its
pressure, within the limits of its freezing point and critical
temperature [Figure 1.6].

Heat is put into the fluid at the lower temperature and pressure,
thus providing the latent heat to make it vaporize.

The vapor is then mechanically compressed to a higher pressure

and a corresponding saturation temperature at which its latent
heat can be rejected so that it changes back to a liquid.

The cooling effect is the heat transferred to the working fluid in

the evaporation process, that is the change in enthalpy between the
fluid entering and the vapor leaving the evaporator.
Figure 1.9 Simple vapor-compression cycle with pressure and
enthalpy values for R134a

Figure 1.10 Pressure–enthalpy, P–h diagram, showing vapor

compression cycle
The simple vapor compression cycle is superimposed on the P–h
diagram in Fig.1.9.

The evaporation process or vaporization of refrigerant is a

constant pressure process and therefore it is represented by a
horizontal line.

In the compression process the energy used to compress the vapor
turns into heat and increases its temperature and enthalpy, so that
at the end of compression the vapor state is in the superheated part
of the diagram and outside the saturation curve.


Figure 1.11 Temperature – entropy diagram for ideal vapor

compression cycle.
The state processes for the ideal refrigeration cycle are plotted in
figure 1.10 The four basic processes are:

1 to 2 isentropic compression.

2 to 3 constant temperature heat rejection, Qh"

3 to 4 isentropic expansion

4 to 1 constant temperature heat absorption, Ql

Figure 1.12: The Carnot

refrigeration cycle
A process in which the heat of compression raises the enthalpy of
the gas is termed adiabatic compression.

Before condensation can start, the vapor must be cooled.

The final compression temperature is almost always above the

condensation temperature as shown, and so some heat is rejected at
a temperature above the condensation temperature.

Expansion is a constant enthalpy process, shown as a vertical line

on the P–h diagram.

No heat is absorbed or rejected during this expansion, the liquid

just passes through a valve.
Since the reduction in pressure at this valve must cause a
corresponding drop in temperature, some of the fluid will flash off
into vapor to remove the energy for this cooling.

The total cooling effect will be the heat transferred to the working
fluid in the boiling or evaporating vessel, i.e. the change in
enthalpies between the fluid entering and the vapor leaving the
evaporator.

For a typical circuit, using the working fluid Refrigerant 22,

evaporating at –5°C and condensing at 35°C, the pressures and
enthalpies.
Figure 1.13 Basic refrigeration cycle

A working system will require a connection between the condenser

and the inlet to the evaporator to complete the circuit.
THE END!