AR 6611 REGULATION

2013
BUILDING
YEAR
SERVICES III 2018 - 2019
SEMESTER : VI

UNIT I –
AIR CONDITIONING: BASIC REFRIGERATION PRINCIPLES

FACULTY IN-CHARGE: VANDHANA MURALIDHARAN

TOPICS
 Thermodynamics ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 02

 Heat --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 02

 Temperature ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 02

 Latent heat of fusion -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 02

 Latent heat of evaporation ------------------------------------------------------------------- 03

 Saturation temperature ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 03

 Pressure temperature relationship for liquid refrigerants -------------------------------- 03

 Condensate cycle ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 04 - 05

 Air cycle ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 04 - 05

 Chilled water cycle ---------------------------------------------------------------------- 04 - 05

 Cooling water cycle --------------------------------------------------------------------- 04 - 05

 Vapour compression cycle ------------------------------------------------------------------- 05

 Compressors ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 05

 Evaporators ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 07

 Refrigerant control devices ------------------------------------------------------------------ 08

 Electric motors -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 11

 Air handling Units ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- 09

 Cooling towers -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

Page 1 of 16
Thermodynamics
 Thermodynamics is the branch of natural science concerned with heat and its relation
to other forms of energy and work.
 There are certain fundamental principles of nature, often called laws of
thermodynamics, which govern our existence here on earth.
 The first and most important of these laws is the fact energy can neither be created nor
destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another.
Heat
 Heat is a form of Energy, primarily created by the transformation of other types of
energy into heat energy.
 Heat is always defined as the energy in transfer, for it is never content to stand still,
but is always moving from a warm body to a colder body. (Ex: Spoon in coffee,
Source of heat – Radiation)
Temperature
 Temperature is a scale used to measure the intensity of heat, the indicator that
determines which way the heat energy will move.
 US – measures in degrees Fahrenheit other parts - centigrade scale (Celsius)
 Both scales use two basic points as reference, the freezing point of water, and the
boiling point of water at sea level.
 Fahrenheit Scale – 180 increments/ degrees F , Celsius Scale – 100 increments/
degrees C
Change of State
 Most of the common substances can exist in three different forms, called states: solid,
liquid and gas.
 The state will change when the substance is heated.
 As a solid, a substance has a fixed volume and shape and is usually unable to flow,
except in the case of glaciers. For instance, an ice cube or snowflake is the solid state
of water.
 When a solid is heated, it turns into a liquid. As a liquid, a substance has a fixed
volume, but its shape changes to fill the shape of its container. For instance, a glass of
water is the liquid state of water.
 When a liquid is heated, it turns into a gas. As a gas, a substance does not have a fixed
volume or shape. Gas expands to fill the shape and volume of its container.
Sensible Heat
 Sensible heat is potential energy in the form of thermal energy or heat.
 The thermal body must have a temperature higher than its surroundings.
 The thermal energy can be transported via conduction, convection, radiation or by a
combination thereof. In many cases the reference temperature is inferred from
common knowledge, i.e. "room temperature“.
Latent Heat
 Latent heat is the amount of energy in the form of heat released or absorbed by a
substance during a change of phase (i.e. solid, liquid, or gas). Two latent heats are
typically described:
 Latent heat of fusion (melting or freezing)
  Latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat required to convert a unit mass
of the substance from solid to liquid form at its melting point without any rise
temperature.
 Latent heat of evaporation (boiling or condensation)
 Latent heat of vaporization is defined as the amount of heat required to convert a unit
mass of the substance from liquid into its vapour state at the same temperature.
Saturation temperature
 The condition of temperature and pressure at which both liquid and vapour can exist
simultaneously is termed saturation.
 Saturation temperature is nothing but the temp at which addition of heat result in
change of phase, for water the change of phase will result in vapour at saturation
temperature and for steam the addition of heat result in superheated steam.
Pressure temperature relationships for Liquid Refrigerants

Choosing a Refrigerant
Each fluid has its own distinct boiling temperature - pressure characteristic. This is called the
Saturation Pressure Temperature relationship, or P-T data for short. The normal boiling point
is atmospheric pressure, which is approximately 1 bar (a).

 R134a boils at -26°C

 R22 boils at -40.8°C
 R404A boils at -46°C
The curves show the evaporating or condensing temperature of each of these fluids together
with carbon dioxide, over the range of temperatures of interest to refrigeration engineers.
Normally it is necessary to choose a fluid which evaporates between, say, -50 and +10 °C and
which condenses at 40 to 70 °C. The pressure for both processes should be greater than
atmospheric - but not too high. Generally the higher the saturation pressure for a given
temperature, the better the thermal capacity of the fluid. So less fluid is required to do the job.
Unfortunately carbon dioxide will not condense at pressures above 70bar because this is the
critical pressure.
 Temperature and pressure are directly proportional to each other.

Page 3 of 16
  This means that as the temperature decreases, the pressure also decreases, and as the
temperature increases, the pressure increases.
 One way to think of this is if you increase the speed of the molecules –by increasing
their temperature- the force of the molecules hitting their container increases and this
increases the pressure.
 The temperature at which a liquid boils is dependent on the pressure exerted on it.

Air Conditioning:

It can be defined as the process of transferring heat from a low temperature region to a high
temperature region. In other words it is the process of cooling a substance. This can be
achieved only if the heat is removed from that substance.

 Liquids absorbs heat when changed from liquid to gas.

 Gases give off heat when changed from gas to liquid.

Principles of Refrigeration

 For an air conditioning system to operate with economy, the refrigerant must be used
repeatedly.
 For this reason, all air conditioners use the same cycle of compression, condensation,
expansion, and evaporation in a closed circuit.
 The same refrigerant is used to move the heat from one area, to cool this area, and to
expel this heat in another area.

Refrigeration cycle components

 The refrigerant comes into the COMPRESSOR as a low-pressure gas, it is

compressed and then moves out of the compressor as a high-pressure gas.
 The gas then flows to the CONDENSER. Here the gas condenses to a liquid, and
gives off its heat to the outside air.
 The liquid then moves to the EXPANSION VALVE under high pressure. This valve
restricts the flow of the fluid, and lowers its pressure as it leaves the expansion valve.
  The low-pressure liquid then moves to the EVAPORATOR, where heat from the
inside air is absorbed and changes it from a liquid to a gas.
 As a hot low-pressure gas, the refrigerant moves to the compressor where the entire
cycle is repeated.
 The four-part cycle is divided at the centre into a high side and a low side. This refers
to the pressures of the refrigerant in each side of the system.

Vapour-Compression Cycle:
 The Vapour Compression Cycle uses energy input to drive a compressor that
increases the pressure and pressure of the refrigerant which is in the vapour state.
 The refrigerant is then exposed to the hot section (termed the condenser) of the
system, its temperature being higher than the temperature of this section.
 As a result, heat is transferred from the refrigerant to the hot section (i.e. heat is
removed from the refrigerant) causing it to condense i.e. for its state to change from
the vapour phase to the liquid phase (hence the term condenser).
 The refrigerant then passes through the expansion valve across which its pressure and
temperature drop considerably.
 The refrigerant temperature is now below that existing in the cold or refrigerated
section (termed the evaporator) of the system, its temperature being lower than the
temperature in this section. As a result, heat is transferred from the refrigerated
section to the refrigerant (i.e. heat is absorbed by the refrigerant) causing it to pass
from the liquid or near-liquid state to the vapour state again (hence the term
evaporator).
 The refrigerant then again passes to the compressor in which its pressure is again
increased and the whole cycle is repeated.

The four basic components of the vapour compression refrigeration system are thus:
1. Compressor: The function of the compressor is to compress the input refrigerant of
low pressure and low temperature. As a result the pressure and the temperature of the
refrigerant increases. Generally reciprocating compressors are used in refrigeration
system. An external motor is used to drive the compressor.
2. Condenser: The condenser is a coil of tubes, which are made of copper. This issued
to condense the refrigerant which is in the form of vapour. And convert into liquid.
3. Expansion Valve: This is otherwise called throttle valve. This valve is used to control
the flow rate of refrigerant and also to reduce the pressure of the refrigerant.
4. Evaporator: This is the part in which the cooling takes place. This is kept in the
space where cooling is required. It is a coil of tubes made up of copper.

COMPRESSOR
The purpose of the compressor is to circulate the refrigerant in the system under pressure; this
concentrates the heat it contains.
At the compressor, the low pressure gas is changed to high pressure gas.
 The compressor has reed valves to control the entrance and exit of refrigerant gas
during the pumping operation. These must be firmly seated.

Page 5 of 16
  An improperly seated intake reed valve can result in gas leaking back into the low
side during the compression stroke, raising the low side pressure and impairing the
cooling effect.
 A badly seated discharge reed valve can allow condensing or head pressure to drop as
it leaks past the valve, lowering the efficiency of the compressor.
Two service valves are located near the compressor as an aid in servicing the system. One
services the high side, it is quickly identified by the smaller discharge hose routed to the
condenser. One is used for the low side, the low side comes from the evaporator, and is larger
than the discharge hose
The compressor is normally belt-driven from the engine crankshaft. Most manufacturers use
a magnetic-type clutch which provides a means of stopping the pumping of the compressor
when refrigeration is not desired.

CONDENSER
 The purpose of the condenser is to receive the high-pressure gas from the compressor
and convert this gas to a liquid.
 It does it by heat transfer, or the principle that heat will always move from a warmer
to a cooler substance.
 Air passing over the condenser coils carries off the heat and the gas condenses.
 The condenser often looks like an engine radiator.
 Condensers used on R-12 and R-134a systems are not interchangeable. Refrigerant-
134a has a different molecular structure and requires a large capacity condenser.
 As the compressor subjects the gas to increased pressure, the heat intensity of the
refrigerant is actually concentrated into a smaller area, thus raising the temperature
of the refrigerant higher than the ambient temperature of the air passing over the
condenser coils.
 Clogged condenser fins will result in poor condensing action and decreased
efficiency. A factor often overlooked is flooding of the condenser coils with
refrigerant oil. Flooding results from adding too much oil to the system.
 Oil flooding is indicated by poor condensing action, causing increased head pressure
and high pressure on the low side. This will always cause poor cooling from the
evaporator. *
EXPANSION VALVE
 The expansion valve removes pressure from the liquid refrigerant to allow expansion
or change of state from a liquid to a vapour in the evaporator.
 The high-pressure liquid refrigerant entering the expansion valve is quite warm. This
may be verified by feeling the liquid line at its connection to the expansion valve. The
liquid refrigerant leaving the expansion valve is quite cold.
 The orifice within the valve does not remove heat, but only reduces pressure. Heat
molecules contained in the liquid refrigerant are thus allowed to spread as the
refrigerant moves out of the orifice.
 Under a greatly reduced pressure the liquid refrigerant is at its coldest as it leaves the
expansion valve and enters the evaporator.
 Pressures at the inlet and outlet of the expansion valve will closely approximate gauge
pressures at the inlet and outlet of the compressor in most systems.
 The similarity of pressures is caused by the closeness of the components to each
other.
 The slight variation in pressure readings of a very few pounds is due to resistance,
causing a pressure drop in the lines and coils of the evaporator and condenser.

EVAPORATOR
 The evaporator works the opposite of the condenser; here refrigerant liquid is
converted to gas, absorbing heat from the air in the compartment.
 When the liquid refrigerant reaches the evaporator its pressure has been reduced,
dissipating its heat content and making it much cooler than the fan air flowing around
it.
 This causes the refrigerant to absorb heat from the warm air and reach its low boiling
point rapidly. The refrigerant then vaporizes, absorbing the maximum amount of heat.
 This heat is then carried by the refrigerant from the evaporator as a low-pressure gas
through a hose or line to the low side of the compressor, where the whole refrigeration
cycle is repeated.
 The evaporator removes heat from the area that is to be cooled. The desired
temperature of cooling of the area will determine if refrigeration or air conditioning is
desired. For example, food preservation generally requires low refrigeration
temperatures, ranging from 40°F (4°C) to below 0°F (-18°C).
 A higher temperature is required for human comfort. A larger area is cooled, which
requires that large volumes of air be passed through the evaporator coil for heat
exchange.
 A blower becomes a necessary part of the evaporator in the air conditioning system.
 The blower fans must not only draw heat-laden air into the evaporator, but must also
force this air over the evaporator fins and coils where it surrenders its heat to the
refrigerant and then forces the cooled air out of the evaporator into the space being
cooled.

Page 7 of 16
REFRIGERANT CONTROL DEVICES (THERMOSTATIC EXPANSION VALVE)
 Thermostatic Expansion Valve.—before discussing the thermostatic expansion valve,
let’s explain the term SUPERHEAT.
 In an evaporator, as the gas vapour moves along the coils toward the suction line, the
gas may absorb additional heat and its temperature rises.
 The difference in degrees between the saturation temperature and the increased
temperature of the gas is called superheat.
 A thermostatic expansion valve (fig.) keeps a constant superheat in the refrigerant
vapour leaving the coil.
 The valve controls the liquid refrigerant, so the evaporator coils maintain the correct
amount of refrigerant at all times.
 The valve has a power element that is activated by a remote bulb located at the end of
the evaporator coils.
 The bulb senses the superheat at the suction line and adjusts the flow of refrigerant
into the evaporator. As the superheat increases (suction line), the temperature, and
therefore the pressure, in the remote bulb also increases.
 This increased pressure, applied to the top of the diaphragm, forces it down along
with the pin, which, in turn, opens the valve, admitting replacement refrigerant from
the receiver to flow into the evaporator. This replacement has three effects. First, it
provides additional liquid refrigerant to absorb heat from the evaporator.
 Second, it applies higher pressure to the bottom of the diaphragm, forcing it upward,
tending to close the valve. And third, it reduces the degree of superheat by forcing
more refrigerant through the suction line.
AIR HANDLING UNIT

Fan
Centrifugal fan is used to circulate the air to the various parts of the sections in the building.
The typical types of fan available are Backward Inclined, Backward Curved, Forward Curved
and Air-foil.

The selection of the fan will depend on the air volume and the static pressure required of the
system. Usually, the designer of the system will use a specialized software to do this
selection.

In order to reduce the effect of vibration on the panel, the motor and the fan are usually
installed on the vibration isolator except when the drive assembly is external to the fan
casing.

In recent years, the use of variable air volume (VAV) system is becoming more popular as
the volume of the air being discharged can be varied depending on the load condition. If the
load is high, the fan speed will be higher and if the load is lower, the speed of the fan will be
lower.

The speed of the fan is varied by using frequency inverter instead of conventional motor such
as PSC motor. Frequency inverter provides better control of the fan speed as a whole range of
fan speed from super low to super high can now be utilized based on the load conditions
required.

This technology has enabled better use of energy and is in tandem with the move to go for
greener energy.

Page 9 of 16
Cooling Coil
Cooling Coil is used to cool and dehumidify the air. Both DX (direct expansion) cooling and
CW (chilled water) cooling coils are available for use depending on the system design.

These coils are arranged in rows with different fin spacing. Aluminium fins and copper tubes
are used in the design of the coils. The corrosion resistance hydrophilic fins are also used due
to its lower cost and lower resistance to the air velocity.

Filters
Filters are to remove particles and contaminants of various sizes from the air. The type of air
filter being used will very much depend on the application of the system.

Panel Filter is a flat and rectangular in shape and provides a minimum low efficiency
filtration which is acceptable to the air conditioning industry. The high velocity filter is
arranged vertically whereas the low velocity filter is arranged in V shape. Typical air velocity
that moves through the filters is in the range of 2-3 m/s.

HEPA Filter is very efficient and is able to achieve efficiencies up to 99.97%, removing
minute particles and airborne bacteria from the air. It is usually used in clean room
applications such as semiconductor production floor, operating theatres and critical processes.

Electrostatic Filter is used to remove particles from the air by using highly charged electrodes
that ionized the air. Bag Filter is able to remove dust particles and is thrown away after use.
Roll Filter is used for high velocity filtration where the used part is rolled up
automatically/manually.

Humidifiers
During winter, the humidity level of the air can be low hence causing discomfort to the
occupants. The humidity of the air is increased by using the humidifiers. Here are the
commonly used humidifiers:
Spray Type has a header and spray nozzles that spray water with a pressure of 15 psi or more.

Steam Pan Type has a pan and a heating coil to heat up the water of the pan. The evaporation
of water caused by the heating will increase the humidity level of the surrounding air.

Steam Grid Type has tiny holes on the pipe to distribute the steam that flows through it. In
this case, the water that is heated up to produce the steam to be supplied to the grid is
conditioned to prevent odour being discharged to the room.

Mixing Box
This box has air inlets that is attached to the dampers. This is the place where the outside air
and the return air are mixed to provide the correct proportion of air to be distributed to the
space that is to be conditioned.

ELECTRIC MOTORS

Split-Phase AC Motor
This is the simplest design where the RUN winding and START winding are connected in
parallel and 90° electrically apart. It is usually used in small pumps, fans and blowers where
the capacity is below 1 horsepower. It has a low starting torque but high starting current.
Since the torque is low, the ability to start the motor is only practical for low load condition.

The RUN winding is make from bigger diameter wire and shorter turn for lower resistance
and high inductance properties. The START winding is make from smaller diameter wire for
higher resistance and low inductance properties.

When power is connected to the motor, both the windings will be energized with the current
in the RUN winding lags the current in the START winding by about 30° electrically. This
out-of-phase effect on the stator produces a starting torque and causes the rotor to start
rotating.

Typically the speed of the motor is 1800 rpm or 3600 rpm when running without any load.
When the load is connected, the speed can go down to 1725 rpm and 3450 rpm respectively.

Page 11 of 16
The no-load speed of the motor is given by:

Speed (rpm) = (Frequency of AC power X 120)/number of poles

For example, if your supply is 60 Hz and the motor is using two-pole, the synchronous speed
= (60X120)/2 = 3600 rpm

There is a switch known as centrifugal switch which is connected in series with the START
winding. This mechanical switch will open when the motor speed reaches 75% of the rated
speed typically within 2 seconds. Once the switch opened, the START winding in circuit is
disconnected.

This is to protect the START winding from overheating. When the motor is powered off, the
switch will close the circuit to get ready for the next starting of the motor.

These days, electronic relay is also being widely used to disconnect the START winding.

Capacitor-Start AC Motor
This motor is similar to the split-phase motor except that there is an external capacitor that is
connected in series with the START winding. This capacitor will cause the current in the
START winding to lead the voltage.
The current in the RUN winding lags the voltage. When this happens, the phase difference
between the two windings is 90° electrically hence a true two-phase starting is achieved.

The starting torque of this motor is very high making it suitable to drive small compressor
which needs to start under full load. The capacity of this motor can go up to 1 horsepower.

Once the motor has reached 75% of the rated speed, the capacitor and the START winding
will be automatically disconnected from the circuit by using the centrifugal switch, potential
or current relay.

After the capacitor and START winding have been removed from the circuit, the magnetic
field being generated continuously will cause the motor to continue running. This type of
motor is also known as CSIR motor or Capacitor-Start-Induction-Run motor.
Capacitor-Start, Capacitor-Run AC Motor
This motor design is similar to the capacitor-start design except that there is a second
capacitor known as the RUN capacitor which is connected in parallel with the START
capacitor and the switch.

These capacitors are effectively connected in series with the START winding. During the
starting of the motor, both the capacitors are connected in the circuit. The START winding
and the RUN winding will remain connected to the circuit at all times.

Usually the capacitance of the RUN capacitor is lower than the START capacitor. During
starting, the effective capacitance is the combination of both capacitors causing a greater
phase angle shift between the windings.

This provides a higher starting torque and can be used to drive the compressor as well as in
belt-driven motors.
As the rotor speed reaches 75% of the rated speed, the switch will be automatically open to
disconnect the START capacitor from the circuit. The START winding remains in the circuit.

The RUN capacitor helps to correct the power factor of the circuit making it more efficient.
The capacity of this type of motor can go up to 10 horsepower and is one of the most efficient
motors used in the HVAC industry.

Single Phase Induction Motor

Single phase induction motor is an AC motor were electrical energy is converted to
mechanical energy to perform some physical task. This induction motor requires only one
power phase for their proper operation.

They are commonly used in low power applications, in domestic and industrial use. Simple
construction, cheap cost, better reliability, eases to repair and better maintenance are some of
its mark able advantages.

Page 13 of 16
Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor

 The main components of the Single Phase induction motor are stator and rotor. Stator
is known to be the stationary part.
 Usually, the single phase alternating supply is given to the stator winding. Rotor is the
rotating part of the motor. Rotor is connected to the mechanical load with the help of
a shaft. A squirrel cage rotor is used here.
 It has a laminated iron core with many slots. Rotor slots are closed or semi-closed
type. The rotor windings are symmetrical and at the same type it is short circuited. An
air gap is there between the rotor and the stator.
 The most practical applications of this motor are in refrigerators, clocks, drills,
pumps, washing machines etc. The stator winding in the 1Ø induction motor has two
parts: Main Winding and Auxiliary Winding.
 Usually, the Auxiliary winding is perpendicular to the main winding. In 1Ø induction
motor the winding with more turns is known as main winding. While the other wire is
called as auxiliary winding.

Principle of Operation

When the stator of a single phase motor is fed with single phase supply, it produces
alternating flux in the stator winding. The alternating current flowing through stator winding
causes induced current in the rotor bars (of the squirrel cage rotor) according to Faraday's law
of electromagnetic induction. This induced current in the rotor will also produce alternating
flux. Even after both alternating fluxes are set up, the motor fails to start. However, if the
rotor is given an initial start by external force in either direction, then motor accelerates to its
final speed and keeps running with its rated speed.

COOLING TOWERS

The purpose of a cooling tower is to cool down water that gets heated up by industrial
equipment and processes. Water comes in the cooling tower hot (from industrial process) and
goes out of the cooling tower cold.

The hot water is usually caused by air conditioning condensers or other industrial processes.
That water is pumped through pipes directly into the cooling tower. Cooling tower nozzles
are used to spray the water onto to the “fill media”, which slows the water flow down and
exposes the maximum amount of water surface area possible for the best air-water contact.
The water is exposed to air as it flows throughout the cooling tower. The air is being pulled
by a motor-driven electric “cooling tower fan”.

When the air and water come together, a small volume of water evaporates, creating an action
of cooling. The colder water gets pumped back to the process/equipment that absorbs heat or
the condenser. It repeats the loop over and over again to constantly cool down the heated
equipment or condensers.

Cooling Tower Applications

Traditional HVAC heating and cooling systems are used in schools, large office buildings,
and hospital. On the other hand, Cooling towers are much larger than traditional HVAC
systems and are used to remove heat from cooling tower water systems in petroleum
refineries, plants, natural gas processing plants, petrochemical plants, and other industrial
processes.

Most cooling towers work based on the principle of “evaporative cooling“.

Evaporative Cooling

Evaporative cooling is the process where warm water from an industrial process is pumped
up to the top of the cooling tower where the water distribution system is. The water then gets

Page 15 of 16
distributed by cooling tower nozzles to the wet deck. At the same time, air is being drawn
through the air-inlet louvers forcing water to evaporate. Evaporation causes the heat to be
removed from the makeup water.

Cross flow Cooling Towers Flow Diagram

In cross flow cooling tower systems the water vertically flows through the fill media while
the air horizontally flows across the falling water. That’s why they call it “cross flow”
because the air and water cross paths or flows. Because of the crossing of flows, the air
doesn’t need to pass through the distribution system. This permits the use of hot water flow
via gravity and distribution basins on the top of the tower right above the fill media. The
basins are a standard of cross flow cooling towers and are applied on all units.

Counter-flow Cooling Tower

In counter flow cooling tower system processes, the air vertically flows upwards, counter to
the water flow in the fill media. Due to the air owing vertically, it’s not possible to use the
basin’s gravity flow like in cross flow towers. As a substitute, these towers use pressurized
spray systems, usually pipe-type, to spray the water on top of the fill media. The pipes and
cooling tower nozzles are usually spread farther apart so they will not restrict any air flow.
 AR 6611 REGULATION
2013
BUILDING
YEAR
SERVICES III 2018 - 2019
SEMESTER : VI

UNIT II –
AIR CONDITIONING: SYSTEMS AND APPLICATIONS

FACULTY IN-CHARGE: VANDHANA MURALIDHARAN

TOPICS
Air conditioning system for small buildings ------------------------------------------------------- 02

Window types ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 02

Evaporative cooler ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 03

Packaged terminal units ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 04

Wall units split system -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 06

Central Plant: DX system ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 08

Chilled Water System --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 12

Air Cooled and Water Cooled condensers ---------------------------------------------------------- 15

Air Distribution system: VAV & VRV Systems --------------------------------------------------- 16

Low temperature applications ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 32

Configuring/ sizing of mechanical equipment ----------------------------------------------------- 27

Equipment spaces and sizes for chiller plant ------------------------------------------------------- 27

Cooling tower ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

Fan room ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 30

Circulation Pumps ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

Pipe & ducts -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

Page 1 of 32
AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEM FOR SMALL BUILDINGS
The choice of which air conditioner system to use depends upon a number of factors
including how large the area is to be cooled, the total heat generated inside the enclosed area,
etc. An HVAC designer would consider all the related parameters and suggest the system
most suitable for your space.

WINDOW AIR CONDITIONER

 Window air conditioner is the most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms.
In this air conditioner all the components, namely the compressor, condenser,
expansion valve or coil, evaporator and cooling coil are enclosed in a single box.
 This unit is fitted in a slot made in the wall of the room, or more commonly a window
sill.
 Window air conditioners are one of the most popular types of air conditioners being
used. Whether it’s your study room, bedroom, or hall, the window air conditioner can
be used for almost all types of spaces.
 To fit the window air conditioner in your room, you need to make a slot in one of the
walls of the room that is to be cooled.
 This system extends around two feet beyond the wall in the back side; hence behind
the wall some free space should be available so that the hot air can be thrown easily
from the condenser.
 The dew collected from the room is also thrown from the back of the air conditioner.
Thus window air conditioners can be used only if there is place available in the wall
to make the slot, and there is free space behind the wall for dissipating the heat and
dripping water.
 Window air conditioners are comprised of components like the compressor,
condenser, expansion valve or expansion coil, and the evaporator or the cooling coil,
all housed in a single box.
 There is also a motor which has shafts on both sides. On one side of the shaft the
blower is connected, which sucks hot air from the room and blows it over the cooling
coil, thus cooling it and sending it to the room.
 On the other shaft the fan is connected, which blows the air over Freon gas passing
through the condenser.
 The window air conditioner is the cheapest of all air conditioning systems. If your
room or office size is about less than 100 sq. ft. a window air conditioner of about 0.8
ton can be good enough.
 If the size of room is more than this but less than 200 sq. ft. your HVAC designer will
recommend a window air conditioner of about 1 ton. For rooms of bigger sizes but
less than 300 sq. ft. the system of about 1.5 ton is advisable.
 However, these sizes may change depending upon the number of people occupying
the space, its alignment with respect to sun, and other sources of heat generation
inside the room.
 It is better to consult your HVAC designer to find out the exact size of window air
conditioner suitable for your space.

Page 2 of 32
  One of the complaints that window air conditioners have had is that they tend to make
noise inside the room. But this problem has been greatly overcome by the present day
efficient and less noisy rotary compressors, which also consume less electricity.
 Today a number of fancy and elegant looking models of window air conditioners are
available that enhance the beauty of your rooms.
 Split air conditioners are used for small rooms and halls, usually in places where
window air conditioners cannot be installed. However, these days many people prefer
split air conditioner units even for places where window air conditioners can be fitted.

EVAPORATIVE COOLER
As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the temperature of a
system by evaporation of water. Human beings perspire and dissipate their metabolic heat by
evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature is more than skin temperature. Animals such
as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat themselves with mud for evaporative cooling.

Direct evaporative cooling (open circuit) is used to lower the temperature of air by using
latent heat of evaporation, changing liquid water to water vapour. In this process, the energy
in the air does not change. Warm dry air is changed to cool moist air. The heat of the outside
air is used to evaporate water.

Indirect evaporative cooling (closed circuit) is similar to direct evaporative cooling, but uses
some type of heat exchanger. The cooled moist air never comes in direct contact with the
conditioned environment.

Page 3 of 32
Advantages and disadvantages of evaporative cooling systems:
Compared to the conventional refrigeration based air conditioning systems, the evaporative
cooling systems offer the following advantages:
 Lower equipment and installation costs
 Substantially lower operating and power costs. Energy savings can be as high as 75%
 Ease of fabrication and installation
 Lower maintenance costs
 Ensures a very good ventilation due to the large air flow rates involved, hence, are
very good especially in 100 % outdoor air applications
 Better air distribution in the conditioned space due to higher flow rates
 The fans/blowers create positive pressures in the conditioned space, so that infiltration
of outside air is prevented
 Very environment friendly as no harmful chemicals are used
Compared to the conventional systems, the evaporative cooling systems suffer from the
following disadvantages:

 The moisture level in the conditioned space could be higher, hence, direct evaporative
coolers are not good when low humidity levels in the conditioned space is required.
However, the indirect evaporative cooler can be used without increasing humidity
 Since the required air flow rates are much larger, this may create draft and/or high
noise levels in the conditioned space.
 Precise control of temperature and humidity in the conditioned space is not possible
 May lead to health problems due to micro-organisms if the water used is not clean or
the wetted surfaces are not maintained properly.

PACKAGED AIR CONDITIONERS

 The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small air conditioning
capacities up to 5 tons.

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  The central air conditioning systems are used for where the cooling loads extend
beyond 20 tons.
 The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in between these
two extremes. The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated capacities
of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons.
 These units are used commonly in places like restaurants, telephone exchanges,
homes, small halls, etc.
 As the name implies, in the packaged air conditioners all the important components of
the air conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window AC.
 Thus the compressor, cooling coil, air handling unit and the air filter are all housed in
a single casing and assembled at the factory location.

Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these systems, the packaged air
conditioners are divided into two types:
1. One with water cooled condenser and
2. One with air cooled condensers.
Both these systems have been described below:

Packaged Air Conditioners with Water Cooled Condenser

 In these packaged air conditions the condenser is cooled by the water. The condenser
is of shell and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the cooling
water flowing along the shell side.
 The water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain functioning of
the air conditioning system.
 The shell and tube type of condenser is compact in shape and it is enclosed in a single
casing along with the compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit
including the cooling coil or the evaporator.
 This whole packaged air conditioning unit externally looks like a box with the control
panel located externally.

Page 5 of 32
SPLIT AIR CONDITIONER
The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor unit. The
outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor, condenser and
expansion valve. The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil and the cooling
fan. For this unit you don’t have to make any slot in the wall of the room. Further, present
day split units have aesthetic appeal and do not take up as much space as a window unit. A
split air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.
There are two main parts of the split air conditioner. These are:

1. Outdoor unit
This unit houses important components of the air conditioner like the compressor,
condenser coil and also the expansion coil or capillary tubing. This unit is installed
outside the room or office space which is to be cooled. The compressor is the
maximum noise making part of the air conditioner, and since in the split air
conditioner, it is located outside the room, the major source of noise is eliminated. In
the outdoor unit there is a fan that blows air over the condenser thus cooling the
compressed Freon gas in it. This gas passes through the expansion coil and gets
converted into low pressure, low temperature partial gas and partial liquid Freon fluid.

Page 6 of 32
2. Indoor unit
 It is the indoor unit that produces the cooling effect inside the room or the office. This
is a beautiful looking tall unit usually white in colour, though these days a number of
stylish models of the indoor unit are being launched.
 The indoor unit houses the evaporator coil or the cooling coil, a long blower and the
filter. After passing from the expansion coil, the chilled Freon fluid enters the cooling
coil.
 The blower sucks the hot, humid and filtered air from the room and it blows it over
the cooling coil. As the air passes over cooling coil its temperature reduces drastically
and also loses the excess moisture.
 The cool and dry air enters the room and maintains comfortable conditions of around
25-27 degree Celsius as per the requirements.
 The temperature inside the space can be maintained by thermostat setting. The setting
should be such that comfortable conditions are maintained inside the room, and there
is also chance for the compressor to trip at regular intervals. If the compressor keeps
running continuously without break, its life will reduce.
 These days’ multi-split air conditioners are also being used commonly. In units for
one outdoor unit there are two indoor units which can be placed in two different
rooms or at two different locations inside a large room.
 Since there is long distance between the indoor and the outdoor unit, there is always
loss of some cooling effect; hence for the same tonnage, split air conditioners produce
somewhat less cooling effect than window air conditioners.
 However, with modern insulation material this gap has been reducing between the
two. In any case, there are number of instances where there is just no alternative to the
split air conditioners.

Page 7 of 32
CENTRALIZED AIR CONDITIONING
 Central air conditioning plants are used for applications like big hotels, large
buildings having multiple floors, hospitals, etc., where very high cooling loads are
required.
 The article describes various possible arrangements of central air conditioning plants.
 The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used when large buildings,
hotels, theatres, airports, shopping malls etc. are to be air conditioned completely.
 The window and split air conditioners are used for single rooms or small office
spaces. If the whole building is to be cooled it is not economically viable to put
window or split air conditioner in each and every room.
 Further, these small units cannot satisfactorily cool the large halls, auditoriums,
receptions areas etc.
 In the central air conditioning systems there is a plant room where large compressor,
condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and the evaporator are kept in the large plant
room.
 They perform all the functions as usual similar to a typical refrigeration system.
However, all these parts are larger in size and have higher capacities.
 The compressor is of open reciprocating type with multiple cylinders and is cooled by
the water just like the automobile engine. The compressor and the condenser are of
shell and tube type.
 While in the small air conditioning system capillary is used as the expansion valve, in
the central air conditioning systems thermostatic expansion valve is used.
 The chilled air is passed via the ducts to all the rooms, halls and other spaces that are
to be air conditioned.
 Thus in all the rooms there is only the duct passing the chilled air and there are no
individual cooling coils, and other parts of the refrigeration system in the rooms.
What is we get in each room is the completely silent and highly effective air
conditions system in the room.
Further, the amount of chilled air that is needed in the room can be controlled by the openings
depending on the total heat load inside the room.

The central air conditioning systems are highly sophisticated applications of the air
conditioning systems and many a times they tend to be complicated. It is due to this reason
that there are very few companies in the world that specialize in these systems. In the modern
era of computerization a number of additional electronic utilities have been added to the
central conditioning systems.
a. Direct expansion or DX central air conditioning plant: In this system the huge
compressor, and the condenser are housed in the plant room, while the expansion
valve and the evaporator or the cooling coil and the air handling unit are housed in
separate room. The cooling coil is fixed in the air handling unit, which also has large
blower housed in it. The blower sucks the hot return air from the room via ducts and
blows it over the cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through various ducts

Page 8 of 32
 and into the spaces which are to be cooled. This type of system is useful for small
buildings.
b. Chilled water central air conditioning plant: This type of system is more useful for
large buildings comprising of a number of floors. It has the plant room where all the
important units like the compressor, condenser, throttling valve and the evaporator are
housed. The evaporator is a shell and tube. On the tube side the Freon fluid passes at
extremely low temperature, while on the shell side the brine solution is passed. After
passing through the evaporator, the brine solution gets chilled and is pumped to the
various air handling units installed at different floors of the building. The air handling
units comprise the cooling coil through which the chilled brine flows, and the blower.
The blower sucks hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling
coil. The cool air is then supplied to the space to be cooled through the ducts. The
brine solution which has absorbed the room heat comes back to the evaporator, gets
chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling unit.

Introduction
 There are two types of central air conditioning systems: Direct Expansion (DX) type
of central air condition plants and Chilled Water type of the central air conditioning
plants.
 In the DX system the air used for cooling the room or space is directly passed over the
cooling coil of the refrigeration plant. In case of the chilled water system the
refrigeration system is used to first chill the water, which is then used to chill the air
used for cooling the rooms or spaces.

Both these systems have been discussed in details; this article discusses DX system, while the
next one describes chilled water system.

DIRECT EXPANSION (DX) TYPE OF CENTRAL AIR CONDITIONING PLANT

 In the direct expansion or DX types of air central conditioning plants the air used for
cooling space is directly chilled by the refrigerant in the cooling coil of the air
handling unit.
 Since the air is cooled directly by the refrigerant the cooling efficiency of the DX
plants is higher.

Page 9 of 32
  However, it is not always feasible to carry the refrigerant piping to the large distances
hence, direct expansion or the DX type of central air conditioning system is usually
used for cooling the small buildings or the rooms on the single floor.
There are three main compartments of the DX type of central conditioning systems:

Figure: DX Central Air Conditioning Plant

i. The Plant Room

 The plant room comprises of the important parts of the refrigeration system, the
compressor and the condenser.
 The compressor can be either semi-hermetically sealed or open type. The semi-
hermetically sealed compressors are cooled by the air, which is blown by the fan,
while open type compressor is water cooled.
 The open compressor can be driven directly by motor shaft by coupling or by the belt
via pulley arrangement.
 The condenser is of shell and tube type and is cooled by the water. The refrigerant
flows along the tube side of the condenser and water along the shell side, which
enables faster cooling of the refrigerant.

Page 10 of 32
  The water used for cooling the compressor and the condenser is cooled in the cooling
tower kept at the top of the plant room, though it can be kept at other convenient
location also.
ii. The Air Handling Unit Room
 The refrigerant leaving the condenser in the plant room enters the thermostatic
expansion valve and then the air handling unit, which is kept in the separate room.
 The air handling unit is a large box type of unit that comprises of the evaporator or the
cooling coil, air filter and the large blower.
 After leaving the thermostatic expansion valve the refrigerant enters the cooling coil
where it cools the air that enters the room to be air conditioned.
 The evaporator in the air handling unit of the DX central air conditioning system is of
coil type covered with the fins to increasing the heat transfer efficiency from the
refrigerant to the air.
 There are two types of ducts connected to the air handling unit: for absorbing the hot
return air from the rooms and for sending the chilled air to the rooms to be air
conditioned.
 The blower of the air handling unit enables absorbing the hot return air that has
absorbed the heat from the room via the ducts. This air is then passed through the
filters and then over the cooling coil.
 The blower then passes the chilled air through ducts to the rooms that are to be air
conditioned.
 The DX expansion system runs more efficiently at higher loads. Even in case of the
breakdown of the plants, the other plants can be used for the cooling purpose.
 The DX types of central air conditioner plants are less popular than the chilled water
type of central conditioning plants.
iii. Air Conditioned Room
 This is the space that is to be actually cooled. It can be residential room, room of the
hotel, part of the office or any other suitable application.
 The ducts from the air handling room are passed to all the rooms that are to be cooled.
The ducts are connected to the grills or diffusers that supply the chilled air to the
room.
 The air absorbs the heat and gets heated and it passes through another set of the grill
and into the return air duct that ends into the air handling unit room. This air is then
re-circulated by the air handling unit.
 Though the efficiency of the DX plants is higher, the air handling units and the
refrigerant piping cannot be kept at very long distance since there will be lots of drop
in pressure of the refrigerant along the way and there will also be cooling losses.
 Further, for the long piping, large amounts of refrigerant will be needed which makes
the system very expensive and also prone to the ma instance problems like the leakage
of the refrigerant.
 Due to these reasons the DX type central air conditioning systems are used for small
air conditioning systems of about 5 to 15 tons in small buildings or the number of
rooms on a single floor.

Page 11 of 32
  If there are large air conditioning loads, then multiple direct expansion systems can be
installed. In such cases, when there is lesser heat load one of the plants can be shut
down and the other can run at full load.
 The DX expansion system runs more efficiently at higher loads. Even in case of the
breakdown of the plants, the other plants can be used for the cooling purpose.
 The DX types of central air conditioning plants are less popular than the chilled water
type of central conditioning plants.

Chilled Water Central Air Conditioning Systems

Chilled Water Central Air Conditioning Plants

 The chilled water types of central air conditioning plants are installed in the place
where whole large buildings, shopping mall, airport, hotel, etc., comprising of several
floors are to be air conditioned.
 While in the direct expansion type of central air conditioning plants, refrigerant is
directly used to cool the room air; in the chilled water plants the refrigerant first chills
the water, which in turn chills the room air.
 In chilled water plants, the ordinary water or brine solution is chilled to very low
temperatures of about 6 to 8 degree Celsius by the refrigeration plant. This chilled
water is pumped to various floors of the building and its different parts.
 In each of these parts the air handling units are installed, which comprise of the
cooling coil, blower and the ducts.
 The chilled water flows through the cooling coil. The blower absorbs return air from
the air conditioned rooms that are to be cooled via the ducts. This air passes over the
cooling coil and gets cooled and is then passed to the air conditioned space.

Chilled Central Air Conditioners

Page 12 of 32
Various Parts of the Chilled Water Air Conditioning Plant

All the important parts of the chilled water air conditioning plant are shown in the above
figure and described in detail below:

a. Central Air Conditioning Plant Room

 The plant room comprises of all the important components of the chilled water air
conditioning plant. These include the compressor, condenser, thermostatic expansion
valve and the evaporator or the chiller.
 The compressor is of open type and can be driven by the motor directly or by the belt
via pulley arrangement connected to the motor. It is cooled by the water just like the
automotive engine.
 The condenser and the evaporator are of shell and tube type. The condenser is cooled
by the water, with water flowing along the shell side and refrigerant along the tube
side. The thermostatic expansion valve is operated automatically by the solenoid
valve.
 The evaporator is also called as the chiller, because it chills the water. If the water
flows along the shell side and refrigerant on the tube side, it is called as the dry
expansion type of chiller.
 If the water flows along tube side and the refrigerant along the shell side, it is called
as the flooded chiller.
 The water chilled in the chiller is pumped to various parts of the building that are to
be air conditioned. It enters the air handling unit, cools the air in cooling coil, absorbs
the heat and returns back to the plant room to get chilled again.

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 The amount of water passing into the chiller is controlled by the flow switch.
 In the central air conditioning plant room all the components, the compressor,
condenser, thermostatic expansion valve, and the chiller are assembled in the
structural steel framework making a complete compact refrigeration plant, known as
the chiller package.
 Piping required to connect these parts is also enclosed in this unit making a highly
compact central air conditioning plant.
 The air handling units are installed in the various parts of the building that are to be
air conditioned, in the place called air handling unit rooms. The air handling units
comprise of the cooling coil, air filter, the blower and the supply and return air ducts.
The chilled water flows through the cooling coil.
 The blower absorbs the return hot air from the air conditioned space and blows it over
the cooling coil thus cooling the air.
 This cooled air passes over the air filter and is passed by the supply air ducts into the
space which is to be air conditioned. The air handling unit and the ducts passing
through it are insulated to reduce the loss of the cooling effect.
b. Air Handling Unit Rooms
 The air handling units are installed in the various parts of the building that are to be
air conditioned, in the place called air handling unit rooms.
 The air handling units comprise of the cooling coil, air filter, the blower and the
supply and return air ducts.
 The chilled water flows through the cooling coil. The blower absorbs the return hot
air from the air conditioned space and blows it over the cooling coil thus cooling the
air.
 This cooled air passes over the air filter and is passed by the supply air ducts into the
space which is to be air conditioned. The air handling unit and the ducts passing
through it are insulated to reduce the loss of the cooling effect.
c. Air Conditioned Rooms
 These are the rooms or spaces that are to be air conditioned. These can be residential
or hotel rooms, halls, shops, offices, complete theatre, various parts of the airport etc.
 At the top of these rooms the supply and the return air ducts are laid. The supply air
ducts supply the cool air to the room via one set of the diffusers, while the return air
ducts absorbs the hot return air from the room by another set of the diffusers.
 The hot return air enters the air handling unit, gets cooled and again enters the room
via supply duct to produce air conditioning effect.
d. Cooling Tower
 The cooling tower is used to cool the water that absorbs heat from the compressor and
the condenser.
 When water flows through these components some water gets evaporated, to make up
this loss some water is also added in the cooling tower.
 The cooling tower is of evaporative type. Here the water is cooled by the atmospheric
air and is re-circulated through the compressor and the condenser.

Page 14 of 32
REFRIGERATOR AND AIR-CONDITIONER CONDENSERS
There are three types of condensers: air cooled, water cooled and evaporative. These have
been described below.

AIR COOLED CONDENSERS

 Air cooled condensers are used in small units like household refrigerators, deep
freezers, water coolers, window air conditioners, split air conditioners, small
packaged air conditioners etc.
 These are used in plants where the cooling load is small and the total quantity of the
refrigerant in the refrigeration cycle is small. Air cooled condensers are also called
coil condensers as they are usually made of copper or aluminium coil.
 Air cooled condensers occupy a comparatively larger space than water cooled
condensers. Air cooled condensers are of two types: natural convection and forced
convection.
 In the natural convection type, the air flows over it in natural a way depending upon
the temperature of the condenser coil. In the forced air type, a fan operated by a motor
blows air over the condenser coil.

WATER COOLED CONDENSERS

 Water cooled condensers are used for large refrigerating plants, big packaged air
conditioners, central air conditioning plants, etc.
 These are used in plants where cooling loads are excessively high and a large quantity
of refrigerant flows through the condenser.
 There are three types of water cooled condensers: tube in tube or double pipe type,
shell and coil type and shell and tube type.
 In all these condensers the refrigerant flows through one side of the piping while the
water flows through the other piping, cooling the refrigerant and condensing it.

Page 15 of 32
Evaporative condensers
 Evaporative condensers are usually used in ice plants. They are a combination of
water cooled and air cooled condensers. In these condensers the hot refrigerant flows
through the coils.
 Water is sprayed over these coils. At the same time the fan draws air from the bottom
side of the condenser and discharges it from the top side of the condenser.
 The spray water that comes in contact with the condenser coil gets evaporated in the
air and it absorbs the heat from the condenser, cools the refrigerant and condenses it.
 Evaporative condensers have the benefits of water cooled as well as air cooled
condenser, hence it occupies less space.

AIR DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS (VAV SYSTEM)

As the name implies, in an all air system, air is used as the media that transports energy from
the conditioned space to the A/C plant. In these systems air is processed in the A/C plant and
this processed air is then conveyed to the conditioned space through insulated ducts using
blowers and fans. This air extracts (or supplies in case of winter) the required amount of
sensible and latent heat from the conditioned space. The return air from the conditioned space
is conveyed back to the plant, where it again undergoes the required processing thus
completing the cycle. No additional processing of air is required in the conditioned space. All
air systems can be further classified into:

1. Single duct systems, or

2. Dual duct systems
The single duct systems can provide either cooling or heating using the same duct, but not
both heating and cooling simultaneously. These systems can be further classified into:

1. Constant volume, single zone systems

2. Constant volume, multiple zone systems
3. Variable volume systems
The dual duct systems can provide both cooling and heating simultaneously.
These systems can be further classified into:

Page 16 of 32
 1. Dual duct, constant volume systems
2. Dual duct variable volume systems

Single duct, constant volume, single zone systems

 Figure shows the classic, single duct, single zone, constant volume systems. As shown
in the figure, outdoor air (OD air) for ventilation and re circulated air (RC air) are
mixed in the required proportions using the dampers and the mixed air is made to
flow through a cooling and dehumidifying coil, a heating coil and a humidifier using a
an insulated ducting and a supply fan.
 As the air flows through these coils the temperature and moisture content of the air
are brought to the required values. Then this air is supplied to the conditioned space,
where it meets the building cooling or heating requirements.
 The return air leaves the conditioned space, a part of it is re circulated and the
remaining part is vented to the atmosphere.
 A thermostat senses the temperature of air in the conditioned space and controls the
amount of cooling or heating provided in the coils so that the supply air temperature
can be controlled as per requirement.
 A humidistat measures the humidity ratio in the conditioned space and controls the
amount of water vapour added in the humidifier and hence the supply air humidity
ratio as per requirement.

 This system is called as a single duct system as there is only one supply duct, through
which either hot air or cold air flows, but not both simultaneously. It is called as a
constant volume system as the volumetric flow rate of supply air is always maintained
constant.
 It is a single zone system as the control is based on temperature and humidity ratio
measured at a single point. Here a zone refers to a space controlled by one thermostat.
 However, the single zone may consist of a single room or one floor or whole of a
building consisting of several rooms.
 The cooling/ heating capacity in the single zone, constant volume systems is regulated
by regulating the supply air temperature and humidity ratio, while keeping the supply
airflow rate constant.

Page 17 of 32
  A separate sub-system controls the amount of OD air supplied by controlling the
damper position. Since a single zone system is controlled by a single thermostat and
humidistat, it is important to locate these sensors in a proper location, so that they are
indicative of zone conditions.
 The supply air conditions are controlled by either coil control or face-and-bypass
control. In coil control, supply air temperature is controlled by varying the flow rate
of cold and hot water in the cooling and heating coils, respectively.
 As the cooling season gradually changes to heating season, the cooling coil valve is
gradually closed and heating coil valve is opened. Though coil control is simpler,
using this type of control it is not possible to control the zone humidity precisely as
the dehumidification rate in the cooling coil decreases with cold water flow rate.
 Thus at low cold water flow rates, the humidity ratio of the conditioned space is likely
to be higher than required. In face-and-bypass control, the cold and hot water flow
rates are maintained constant, but the amount of air flowing over the coils are
decreased or increased by opening or closing the by-pass dampers, respectively.
 By this method it is possible to control the zone humidity more precisely, however,
this type of control occupies more space physically and is also expensive compared to
coil control.

Applications of single duct, single zone, constant volume systems

1. Spaces with uniform loads, such as large open areas with small external loads e.g.
theatres, auditoria and departmental stores.
2. Spaces requiring precision control such as laboratories

The Multiple, single zone systems can be used in large buildings such as factories, office
buildings etc.

Single duct, constant volume, multiple zone systems

 For very large buildings with several zones of different cooling/heating requirements,
it is not economically feasible to provide separate single zone systems for each zone.
For such cases, multiple zone systems are suitable.
 Figure shows a single duct, multiple zone system with terminal reheat coils. In these
systems all the air is cooled and dehumidified (for summer) or heated and humidified
(for winter) to a given minimum or maximum temperature and humidity ratio.
 A constant volume of this air is supplied to the reheat coil of each zone. In the reheat
coil the supply air temperature is increased further to a required level depending upon
the load on that particular zone.
 This is achieved by a zone thermostat, which controls the amount of reheat, and hence
the supply air temperature. The reheat coil may run on either electricity or hot water.

Advantages of single duct, multiple zone, and constant volume systems with reheat coils
a) Relatively small space requirement
b) Excellent temperature and humidity control over a wide range of zone loads

Page 18 of 32
 c) Proper ventilation and air quality in each zone is maintained as the supply air amount
is kept constant under all conditions

Single duct, multiple zone, constant volume systems with reheat coils

Disadvantages of single duct, multiple zone, and constant volume systems with reheat
coils
a. High energy consumption for cooling, as the air is first cooled to a very low
temperature and is then heated in the reheat coils. Thus energy is required first for
cooling and then for reheating. The energy consumption can partly be reduced by
increasing the supply air temperature, such that at least one reheat coil can be
switched off all the time. The energy consumption can also be reduced by using waste
heat (such as heat rejected in the condensers) in the reheat coil.
b. Simultaneous cooling and heating is not possible.

Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems

 Figure shows a single duct, multiple zone, and variable air volume system for summer
air conditioning applications. As shown, in these systems air is cooled and
dehumidified to a required level in the cooling and dehumidifying coil (CC).
 A variable volume of this air is supplied to each zone. The amount of air supplied to
each zone is controlled by a zone damper, which in turn is controlled by that zone
thermostat as shown in the figure.
 Thus the temperature of supply air to each zone remains constant, whereas its flow
rate varies depending upon the load on that particular zone.

Page 19 of 32
 Single duct, variable air volume (VAV) systems

Compared to constant volume systems, the variable air volume systems offer advantages such
as:
a. Lower energy consumption in the cooling system as air is not cooled to very low
temperatures and then reheated as in constant volume systems.
b. Lower energy consumption also results due to lower fan power input due to lower
flow rate, when the load is low. These systems lead to significantly lower power
consumption, especially in perimeter zones where variations in solar load and outside
temperature allows for reduced air flow rates. However, since the flow rate is
controlled, there could be problems with ventilation, IAQ and room air distribution
when the zone loads are very low. In addition it is difficult to control humidity
precisely using VAV systems. Balancing of dampers could be difficult if the airflow
rate varies widely. However, by combining VAV systems with terminal reheat it is
possible to maintain the air flow rate at a minimum required level to ensure proper
ventilation and room air distribution. Many other variations of VAV systems are
available to cater to a wide variety of applications.
Dual duct, constant volume systems
Figure shows the schematic of a dual duct, constant volume system. As shown in the figure,
in a dual duct system the supply air fan splits the flow into two streams.

Dual duct, constant volume systems

Page 20 of 32
  One stream flow through the cooling coil and gets cooled and dehumidified to about
13o C, while the other stream flows the heating coil and is heated to about 35–45o C.
The cold and hot streams flow through separate ducts.
 Before each conditioned space or zone, the cold and hot air streams are mixed in
required proportions using a mixing box arrangement, which is controlled by the zone
thermostat.
 The total volume of air supplied to each zone remains constant, however, the supply
air temperature varies depending upon load.
Advantages of dual duct systems
 Since total airflow rate to each zone is constant, it is possible to maintain proper IAQ
and room air distribution.
 Cooling in some zones and heating in other zones can be achieved simultaneously
 System is very responsive to variations in the zone load, thus it is possible to maintain
required conditions precisely.
Disadvantages of dual duct systems
1. Occupies more space as both cold air and hot air ducts have to be sized to handle all
air flow rate, if required.
2. Not very energy efficient due to the need for simultaneous cooling and heating of the
air streams. However, the energy efficiency can be improved by completely shutting
down the cooling coil when the outside temperature is low and mixing supply air from
fan with hot air in the mixing box. Similarly, when the outside weather is hot, the
heating coil can be completely shut down, and the cold air from the cooling coil can
be mixed with supply air from the fan in the mixing box.

Page 21 of 32
Dual duct, variable air volume systems
 These systems are similar to dual duct, constant volume systems with the only
difference that instead of maintaining constant flow rates to each zone, the mixing
boxes reduce the air flow rate as the load on the zone drops.
 Outdoor air control in all air systems: Outdoor air is required for ventilation purposes.
In all air systems, a sub-system controls the amount of outdoor air by controlling the
position of exhaust, re-circulated and outdoor air dampers.
 From mass balance, since the outdoor airflow rate should normally be equal to the
exhaust airflow rate (unless building pressurization or de-pressurization is required),
both the exhaust and outdoor air dampers open or close in unison. Again from mass
balance, when the outdoor air damper opens the re-circulated air damper closes, and
vice versa.
 The control system maintains a minimum amount of outdoor air (about 10 to 20% of
supply air flow rate as required for ventilation) when the outdoor is too cold (≤−30oC)
or too warm (≥ 24oC).
 For energy conservation, the amount of outdoor air can be increased gradually as the
outdoor air temperature increases from −30oC to about 13oC. A 100 percent outdoor
air can be used when the outdoor air temperature is between 13oC to about 24oC.
 By this method it is possible to reduce the annual energy consumption of the air
conditioning system significantly, while maintaining the required conditions in the
conditioned space.
All water systems
 In all water systems the fluid used in the thermal distribution system is water, i.e.,
water transports energy between the conditioned space and the air conditioning plant.
 When cooling is required in the conditioned space then cold water is circulated
between the conditioned space and the plant, while hot water is circulated through the
distribution system when heating is required.
 Since only water is transported to the conditioned space, provision must be there for
supplying required amount of treated, outdoor air to the conditioned space for
ventilation purposes. Depending upon the number of pipes used, the all water systems
can be classified into a 2-pipe system or a 4-pipe system.
 A 2-pipe system is used for either cooling only or heating only application, but cannot
be used for simultaneous cooling and heating. Figure 6 shows the schematic of a 2-
pipe, all water system.
 As shown in the figure and as the name implies, a 2-pipe system consists of two pipes
– one for supply of cold/hot water to the conditioned space and the other for the return
water.
 A cooling or heating coil provides the required cold or hot water. As the supply water
flows through the conditioned space, required heat transfer between the water and
conditioned space takes place, and the return water flows back to the cooling or
heating coil.
 A flow control valve controls the flow rate of hot or cold water to the conditioned
space and thereby meets the required building heating or cooling load. The flow
control valve is controlled by the zone thermostat.

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 As already mentioned, a separate arrangement must be made for providing the
required amount of ventilation air to the conditioned space. A pressure relief valve
(PRV) is installed in the water line for maintaining balanced flow rate.
 A 4-pipe system consists of two supply pipelines – one for cold water and one for hot
water; and two return water pipelines.
 The cold and hot water are mixed in a required proportion depending upon the zone
load, and the mixed water is supplied to the conditioned space.
 The return water is split into two streams, one stream flows to the heating coil while
the other flows to the cooling coil.
 Heat transfer between the cold/hot water and the conditioned space takes place either
by convection, conduction or radiation or a combination of these.
 The cold/hot water may flow through bare pipes located in the conditioned space or
one of the following equipment can be used for transferring heat: 1. Fan coil units 2.
Convectors 3. Radiators etc.
 A fan coil unit is located inside the conditioned space and consists of a heating and/or
cooling coil, a fan, air filter, drain tray and controls. Figure 5 shows the schematic of a
fan coil unit used for cooling applications.
 As shown in the figure, the basic components of a fan coil unit are: finned tube
cooling coil, fan, air filter, insulated drain tray with provision for draining condensate
water and connections for cold water lines.
 The cold water circulates through the finned tube coil while the blower draws warm
air from the conditioned space and blows it over the cooling coil. As the air flows
through the cooling coil it is cooled and dehumidified.
 The cold and dehumidified air is supplied to the conditioned space for providing
required conditions inside the conditioned space. The water condensed due to
dehumidification of room air has to be drained continuously. A cleanable or
replaceable filter is located in the upstream of the fan to prevent dust accumulation on
the cooling coil and also to protect the fan and motor from dust.
 Fan coil units for domestic air conditioning are available in the airflow range of 100
to 600 l/s, with multi-speed, high efficiency fans. In some designs, the fan coil unit
also consists of a heating coil, which could be in the form of an electric heater or
steam or hot water coil.
 Electric heater is used with 2-pipe systems, while the hot water/steam coils are used
with 4-pipe systems. The fan coil units are floor mounted, window mounted or ceiling
mounted.
 The capacity of a fan coil unit can be controlled either by controlling the cold water
flow rate or by controlling air flow rate or both. The airflow rate can be controlled
either by a damper arrangement or by varying the fan speed.
 The control may be manual or automatic, in which case, a room thermostat controls
the capacity. Since in the fan coil unit there is no provision for ventilation, a separate
arrangement must be made to take care of ventilation.
 A fan coil unit with a provision for introducing treated ventilation air to the
conditioned space is called as unit ventilator.
 A convector consists of a finned tube coil through which hot or cold fluid flows. Heat
transfer between the coil and surrounding air takes place by natural convection only,
hence no fans are used for moving air.

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  Convectors are very widely used for heating applications, and very rarely are used for
cooling applications. In a radiator, the heat transfer between the coil and the
surrounding air is primarily by radiation.
 Some amount of heat is also transferred by natural convection. Radiators are widely
used for heating applications, however, in recent times they are also being used for
cooling applications.
Advantages of all water systems
1. The thermal distribution system requires very less space compared to all air systems.
Thus there is no penalty in terms of conditioned floor space. Also the plant size will
be small due to the absence of large supply air fans.
2. Individual room control is possible, and at the same time the system offers all the
benefits of a large central system.
3. Since the temperature of hot water required for space heating is small, it is possible to
use solar or waste heat for winter heating.
4. It can be used for new as well existing buildings (retrofitting).
5. Simultaneous cooling and heating is possible with 4-pipe systems.
Disadvantages of all water systems
1. Requires higher maintenance compared to all air systems, particularly in the
conditioned space.
2. Draining of condensate water can be messy and may also create health problems if
water stagnates in the drain tray. This problem can be eliminated, if dehumidification
is provided by a central ventilation system, and the cooling coil is used only for
sensible cooling of room air.
3. If ventilation is provided by opening windows or wall apertures, then, it is difficult to
ensure positive ventilation under all circumstances, as this depends on wind and stack
effects.
4. Control of humidity, particularly during summer is difficult using chilled water
control valves.
Applications of all water systems
All water systems using fan coil units are most suitable in buildings requiring individual
room control, such as hotels, apartment buildings and office buildings.

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 Fan coil unit

All water system

VARIABLE REFRIGERANT VOLUME (VRV SYSTEMS/ VARIABLE

REFRIGERANT FLOW)
 VRF systems are similar to the multi-split systems which connect one outdoor section
to several evaporators. However, multi-split systems turn OFF or ON completely in
response to one master controller, whereas VRF systems continually adjust the flow
of refrigerant to each indoor evaporator.
 The control is achieved by continually varying the flow of refrigerant through a pulse
modulating valve (PMV) whose opening is determined by the microprocessor
receiving information from the thermistor sensors in each indoor unit.
 The indoor units are linked by a control wire to the outdoor unit which responds to the
demand from the indoor units by varying its compressor speed to match the total
cooling and/or heating requirements. VRF systems promise a more energy-efficient
strategy (estimates range from 11% to 17% less energy compared to conventional
units) at a somewhat higher cost.

Page 25 of 32
VRF systems are engineered systems and use complex refrigerant and oil control circuitry.
The refrigerant pipe-work uses a number of separation tubes and/or headers (refer schematic
figure above). A separation tube has 2 branches whereas a header has more than 2 branches.
Either of the separation tube or header, or both, can be used for branches. However, the
separation tube is never provided after the header because of balancing issues.

VRF heat pump systems VRF heat pump systems permit heating or cooling in all of the
indoor units but not simultaneous heating and cooling. When the indoor units are in the
cooling mode, they act as evaporators; when they are in the heating mode, they act as
condensers. These are also known as two-pipe systems.

Page 26 of 32
Refrigerant Modulation in a VRF System VRV/VRF technology is based on the simple
vapour compression cycle (same as conventional split air conditioning systems) but gives you
the ability to continuously control and adjust the flow of refrigerant to different internal units,
depending on the heating and cooling needs of each area of the building. The refrigerant flow
to each evaporator is adjusted precisely through a pulse wave electronic expansion valve in
conjunction with an inverter and multiple compressors of varying capacity, in response to
changes in the cooling or heating requirement within the air conditioned space.
CONFIGURING / SIZING OF MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT
 A method and system of managing a configuration of mechanical equipment provides
a structured procedure.
 It helps to manage various parameters of the mechanical equipment to facilitate the
maintenance of safety, performance and reliability of the mechanical equipment.
 Correct sizing of mechanical equipment is important for several reasons.
 Mechanical equipment larger than needed results in inefficiencies of the system.
TYPE OF EQUIPMENT COMMONLY AVAILABLE RATINGS
Window and Split AC Min : 1 TR – Max : 2 TR
Packaged Air-conditioners Min : 5.5 TR – Max : 22 TR
Duct-able Air-conditioners Min : 5.5 TR – Max : 22 TR
DX-System - Min : 12 TR – Max : 90 TR
EQUIPMENT SPACING
While planning for the space requirements of AC Equipment rooms the following guidelines
may be used.
TYPE OF EQUIPMENT SPACE REQUIREMENT
 Packaged unit room 3m x 2m – Single unit

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  3m x 4 m – Two units
 3 m x 5 m – Three units
 AHU Rooms 4m x 3m – upto 30 TR
 4m x 5 m – upto 60 TR
 Water Cooled chiller plants 6m x 6m for each plant and pumps. 3m x 3m open space
for cooling tower.
 Air cooled chiller plants 10 m x 8 m open space for one plant and pumps.
Note the following:
 Height of packaged unit room or the AHU room should be the same as that of the area
to be air conditioned.
 Duct-able split units require minimum 600 mm clear space above false to locate the
indoor units and to run the ducts.
 Equipment placing should be done with an eye on maintenance. Packaged unit should
have 1 m space in front of the unit for unit servicing.
 If it is water cooled 2 m at the side also required for condenser tube cleaning.
 Shafts should be sized properly for installing the pipes based on site conditions.
CIRCULATION PUMPS
 A circulator pump is used to circulate gases, liquids or slurries in a circuit.
 Most often, these pumps are found circulating water in a hydronic heating or cooling
system.
Types of Circulator Pumps
 Different kinds of circulation pumps. Among the designs are bronze sweat end
pumps,
 Stainless steel circulator pumps, cast iron pumps, pre-wired models and in-line
pumps.
 Circulator pumps also vary based on horsepower, flow range, motor type, and the
maximum and minimum liquid temperatures they can be used in.
DUCTS
 Ducts can be round, oval or rectangular. Round ducts are usually less expensive to
fabricate and install, but require higher ceiling heights.
 Ducts are generally fabricated in galvanized steel. Fiberglass ducts are lighter and
competitively priced. Ducts are available in rigid and flexible round profiles.
 Fiberglass ductwork is generally unsuitable for hospitals because the breeding of
micro-organisms is more pronounced on them.
 For better circulation of air when cooling, air supply should be through the ceiling and
return air through low wall or floor return-air grilles.
 Ducts are hung from metal hangers, straps, lugs or brackets.
 Dampers should be installed as far as possible from the outlet. Distribution system
needs to be balanced and adjusted for proper performance.
TYPES OF SUPPLY DUCT SYSTEMS
There are several basic types of supply and return duct systems.

Page 28 of 32
Any one of the system types, or a combination of different types, can be utilized to fit the
needs of a particular structure.
The general types of supply duct systems include:
 Radial system
 Extended plenum system
 Reducing plenum system
 Reducing trunk system
 Perimeter loop system
VARIOUS ARRANGEMENTS OF DUCTS

PIPING DESIGN
 The arrangement of the water piping will depend upon the cooling or heating systems
chosen as being the most suitable for the building.
 The water velocity normally used are dependent on pipe size but are usually in the
range 1 m/s to 3 m/s.
 Main headers in the plant room are designed for very low velocity around 1 m/s.
Noise can be caused by velocities in excess of 4 m/s but this is more likely to be
caused by air left in the pipes by inadequate venting. Where materials other than steel
are used, erosion can occur at the higher velocities particularly if the water is allowed
to become acidic.
 Friction factor in piping should not exceed 5 m of water for 100 m of pipe length. The
power consumed in circulating the water around the system is proportional to the
pressure loss (due to friction) and the flow. It is therefore an advantage to design
system with a water temperature rise say 5°C-7°C which results in minimising the
flow rate.
 Air-conditioning system operate for a large part of the time at less than the design
load, and this means that operating costs can be minimized if the water quantity

Page 29 of 32
 circulated can be reduced at partial load. This should be done with variable speed
pumping systems.
LAYOUT CONSIDERATIONS
 The layout of the main pipe runs should be considered in relation to the building
structure, which will have to support their weight and carry the imposed axial loads.
 The positioning of expansion joints should be considered in relation to the branches,
which may only accommodate small movements.
 The pumps should not be subjected to excessive loads from the piping. Provision
should be made for venting air and any gas formed by corrosion processes from the
high points in the system: failure to do this can lead to restricted water flows and poor
performance.
 New systems invariably contain debris of one sort or another left during construction,
and this can cause trouble by blocking pipes, control valves and pumps if it is not
removed during testing and commissioning.
 Piping system should be designed to permit proper cleaning and flushing and should
include suitable strainers at appropriate locations.
Centrifugal fans
There are three basic types of centrifugal fans, backward curved, forward curved, and radial.
Noise from centrifugal fans is dominantly a superimposition of discrete tones at the varying
frequencies and broadband aerodynamic noise.
Axial fans
 Axial fans derive their name from the fact that the airflow is along the axis of the fan.
To avoid a circular flow pattern and to increase performance, guide vanes are usually
installed downstream of the rotor.
 Axial fans with exit guide vanes are called vane axial and those without guide vanes
are called tube axial. Axial fans generally operate at higher pressures than centrifugal
fans and are usually considered noisier.
 Common applications include heating and ventilation systems. Because of the large
number of blades and high rotational speeds, noise from axial fans is generally
characterized by strong discrete blade passing tones.
 Variable inlet vane system may generate significantly low frequency noise as the
vanes shut down. Additional attenuation with a corresponding additional pressure
drop is required to attenuate the noise generated by the inlet vanes.
 Variable speed motors and drives and variable pitch fan blade systems are actually
quieter at reduced air output than at full output.
 The designer has the option of designing for maximum output as if the system were
constant volume, or selecting the sound attenuation for a more normal operating point
and allowing fan noise to exceed the design criteria on the rare occasions when the
fan operates at full output.
 To reduce fan noise, the following should be adopted:
a. Design the air distribution system for minimum resistance, since the sound generated
by a fan, regardless of type, increase by the square of the static pressure. Turbulence

Page 30 of 32
 can increase the flow noise generated by duct fittings and dampers in the air
distribution systems especially at low frequencies.
b. Examine the specific sound power levels of the fan designs for any given job.
Different fans generate different levels of sound and produce different octave band
spectra. Select a fan that will generate the lowest possible sound level, commensurate
with other fan selection parameters.
c. Fans with relatively few blades (less than 15) tend to generate tones, which may
dominate the spectrum. These tones occur at the blade passage frequency and its
harmonies. The intensity of these tones depends on resonance with the duct system,
fan design, and inlet flow distortions.
d. Select a fan to operate as near as possible to its rated peak efficiency when handling
the required quantity of air and static pressure. Also, select a fan that generates the
lowest possible noise but still meets the required design conditions for which it is
selected. Using an oversized or undersized fan, that does not operate at or near rated
peak efficiency, may result in substantially higher noise levels.
e. Design duct connections at both the fan inlet and outlet for uniform and straight
airflow. Avoid unstable, gusting, and swirling inlet airflow. Deviation from accepted
applications can severely degrade both the aerodynamic and acoustic performance of
any fan and invalidate manufacturer’s ratings or other performance predictions.
f. Select duct silencers that do not significantly increase the required fan total static
pressure.
Following measures should be adopted
a. Shorter ducts with flanges and bracings is very advantageous for noise reduction.
b. Choose the right thickness of sheets for ducting.
c. Provide calculated turning vanes in all bends.
d. Provide take off pieces in all branches and collars.
e. Minimize the number of terminals since each terminal of equal noise will create a
higher overall noise inside the room — two equal noise source increase the noise by 3
dB
f. Velocities of supply and return ducts and also terminals are important for noise
control.
g. For auditoriums, conference halls etc., choose the right silencers in the supply. Define
a clear opening for return air and fix return air silencers (parallel baffle silencer). The
pressure drop expected across these silencers varies from 6 mm to 10 mm of water
column.
h. Selecting double skin air handling unit should be done with care. If used without
supply and return air silencers it adds to the noise in the duct patch. However, by
using double skin air handling unit the noise inside the plant room can be lowered.
i. Instead of insulating the plant room, increasing the density of the plant room wall and
providing return air baffles in the return air patch is more helpful in noise reduction.
The doors to the air handling unit room should be either with an attic entry or dense
enough to avoid noise transmission.
j. Avoid terminal dampers and grilles if the noise criteria is of the order of NC 20
(recording studios).

Page 31 of 32
 k. If ducts have to be routed outside the conditioned space, the density of the insulating
materials over the duct surface is very critical.
l. Selection of a proper terminal device helps in noise reduction.
m. VAV shall be planned along with relevant VFD or bypass arrangement. Otherwise the
duct is subjected to variable pressures resulting in variable noise pattern.
n. Minimize flow-generated noise by elbows or duct branch take-offs, whenever
possible, by locating them at least four to five duct diameters from each other. For
high velocity systems, it may be necessary to increase this distance to up to ten duct
diameters in critical noise areas.
o. Keep airflow velocity in the duct as low as possible (7.5 m/s or less) near critical
noise areas by expanding the duct cross-section area. However, do not exceed an
included expansion angle of greater than 15°. Flow separation, resulting from
expansion angles greater than 15°, may produce rumble noise. Expanding the duct
cross-section area reduces potential flow noise associated with turbulence in these
areas.
p. Use turning vanes in large 90° rectangular elbows and branch take-offs. This provides
a smoother transmission in which the air can change flow direction, thus reducing
turbulence.
q. Place grilles, diffusers and registers into occupied space as far as possible from
elbows and branch take-offs.
r. Minimize the use of volume dampers near grilles, diffusers and registers in
acoustically critical situations.
s. Vibration isolate ducts and pipes, using spring and/or neoprene hangers for at least the
first 15 m from the vibration-isolated equipment.
LOW TEMPERATURE APPLICATIONS
DXD LOW TEMPERATURE CONCEALED DUCTED UNIT
The DXD is a concealed, ducted fan coil, suitable for low temperature applications from 8 -
18 deg C, making them ideal for bespoke wine cellars, food preparation areas and low
temperature storage, to name but a few. Designed for horizontal ceiling void applications and
supplied complete with a discharge plenum and spigots. They are ideal for irregular shaped
rooms and for where low sound levels are essential.
Specification
 Low temperature de-ice thermostat
 Easy filter access
 Matching outdoor units are factory charged with R407C refrigerant
 Hard wired remote controller
 250mm spigots
Options
 Electric heating
 Return air plenum
 Condensate pump
 Fresh air inlet
 Return air sensor

Page 32 of 32
 AR 6611 REGULATION
2013
BUILDING
YEAR
SERVICES III 2018 - 2019
SEMESTER : VI

UNIT III –
AIR CONDITIONING: DESIGN ISSUES AND HORIZONTAL
DISTRIBUTION OF SYSTEMS

FACULTY IN-CHARGE: VANDHANA MURALIDHARAN

TOPICS
 Design criteria for selecting the Air conditioning system for large building and energy

conservation measures ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 02

 Typical choices for cooling systems for small and large buildings -------------------- 04

 Horizontal distribution of services for large buildings ----------------------------------- 09

 Grouped horizontal distribution over central corridors ---------------------------------- 15

 Distribution Above ceiling ------------------------------------------------------------------- 18

 Distribution In floor --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

 Distribution Raised access floor ------------------------------------------------------------ 17

 Horizontal distribution of mechanical services ------------------------------------------- 17

Page 1 of 19
SELECTION CRITERIA FOR AIR CONDITIONING SYSTEMS:
Selection of a suitable air conditioning system depends on:

 Capacity, performance and spatial requirements

 Initial and running costs
 Required system reliability and flexibility
 Maintainability
 Architectural constraints
 The relative importance of the above factors varies from building owner to owner and
may vary from project to project.
 The typical space requirement for large air conditioning systems may vary from about
4 percent to about 9 percent of the gross building area, depending upon the type of the
system.
 Normally based on the selection criteria, the choice is narrowed down to 2 to 3
systems, out of which one will be selected finally.
 Architectural Constraints Designing air conditioning for different building
applications and occupancies requires a consideration of different design criteria,
operating hours, and different system characteristics.
 Specific design criteria usually dictate the type of air conditioning system that should
be selected.
 A good example is the design of an air conditioning system for a class 10 clean room
for fabrication of semiconductor wafer. In this case a constant-volume central system
is always the preferred option.
 When the clean room is in operation, adequate clean air must be provided to maintain
uni-directional flow to prevent the contamination of semiconductor wafers by sub
micrometre-size particulates.
 It should be noted that a constant-volume system with electric terminal reheat is
always preferable to a VAV system in places requiring high precision constant
temperature to be maintained in the conditioned space.
 For guest rooms in luxury hotels, a four-pipe fan-coil system is the most widely used
air conditioning system as in addition to the systems ease of maintenance, the four-
pipe fan-coil system provides individual temperature and fan speed controls as well as
a positive supply of adequate outdoor ventilation air. When the room is not occupied,
the fan coil unit (in the room) can be turned off conveniently.
 Space limitations specified by the architect or facility owner also influence the
selection of the air conditioning system.
 For example where the design for a high-rise building provides no Rooftop space for
AHUs and other mechanical equipment, or if there is not enough space for supply and
return duct shafts, a floor-by-floor AHU central system may be the practical choice.
 Capacity and Performance Requirements Another vital consideration for the selection
of air conditioning system is the system capacity.
 For a single-story small retail shop, a constant-volume packaged system is often
chosen. If the conditioned space is a large indoor stadium with a seating capacity of
up to 70,000 spectators, a single-zone VAV central system is often selected. This

Page 2 of 19
 system also guarantees the provision of minimum ventilation controls for required
indoor air quality regulation.
 Maintenance Considerations It is worth mentioning here that a central system with
AHUs, a few water-cooled centrifugal chillers, and cooling towers needs less
maintenance work than a packaged system with many rooftop air-cooled units.
 A VAV reheat central system needs less maintenance work in the fan and plant rooms
than fan-coil system, which often requires much maintenance work in the ceiling
space directly above the conditioned space.
 Cost Considerations Initial cost and operating costs (mainly energy cost) are always
primary factors that affect the selection of an air conditioning system.

ENERGY CONSERVATION IN AIR- CONDITIONING SYSTEMS

 Balance air and water systems that are out of balance

 Repair variable-air-volume boxes that are not working properly
 Tighten loose fan belts
 Repair leaking control valves
 Replace leaking damper seals
 Repair or replace malfunctioning variable-speed drives
 Seal ductwork to minimize leaks
 Reduce excessive air-change rates.
 Building Envelope
a) Repair door and window seals to prevent excessive infiltration of unconditioned outdoor
air and excessive exfiltration of conditioned air replace inefficient glazing or install solar-
control film provide internal or external shading devices to control solar heat gain Install
additional thermal insulation where needed to reduce heat gain and loss.
b) Two-speed cooling tower fans and variable-speed drives on fans and pumps and energy
management systems (or direct digital control systems) will allow for the modulating of
HVAC equipment. This controls the system so that it works only to meet the space
conditioning and ventilation requirements of the building spaces, and not just at full output
capacity at all times. For example, demand-controlled ventilation modulates ventilated air
to keep CO2 levels below a set point (for example, 1000 parts per million), thereby
allowing ventilation rates to be adjusted to the number of people occupying the space and
other variables. This strategy for reducing building ventilation saves energy without
compromising indoor air quality, and modern CO2 sensors are both reliable and
inexpensive.
c) The cost-effectiveness of installing direct digital controls (DDCs) on an HVAC system
varies widely with the specific site and application. DDC systems save energy if they are
used to turn building systems off when they are not needed. In office buildings, DDC
systems can modulate HVAC and lighting equipment to achieve energy savings as well as
to trim demand during peak periods, thereby lowering energy bills for months to come.
d) Using occupancy sensors in conjunction with digital controls can limit energy waste in
unoccupied hotel and motel rooms and similar spaces, including offices. Guest room
occupancy sensors or central control systems can reduce energy requirements without

Page 3 of 19
 inconveniencing guests. For example, a central switching system at the front desk can turn
on heating or air conditioning as the guest checks in or manually adjust thermostat settings
if the room is unoccupied. Heat sensing (infrared) detectors can activate HVAC and
lighting systems based on human presence in the room. Turn-off time delays of 10 to 30
minutes can accommodate a guest’s departure from the room for short periods of time.
e) Variable air volume (VAV) air-handling systems with variable-speed drives (VSDs) can
save considerable fan energy over constant volume systems. Incorporating a VSD on a
VAV fan allows it to slow down as load decreases. Because reducing fan speed by one-
half will reduce power consumption by seven eighths, a VSD on a VAV fan system offers
compound energy savings that can provide a payback of three to five years. Typical VSD
installation costs are $200 to $250 per horsepower of the motor driven. VAV can save
energy cost effectively in systems whose fans are 20 hp or more.
f) Variable-speed drives are also useful in a number of other commercial and industrial
applications, from moving water from boilers or chillers to local heat exchangers to
adjusting patterns of irrigation to optimize crop growth while minimizing water use.
Motors used in pumping fluids like water or high-pressure air can match pumping rates to
instantaneous demands, thereby saving both energy and demand costs.
g) VSD’s are also useful in adjusting ventilation rates to ensure good indoor air quality while
controlling fan energy use. Instead of operating at fixed fan rates on a predetermined
schedule, ventilation rates can be varied to maintain CO2 levels below a given threshold,
for example, 1100 parts per million. Inserting a CO2 sensor in the return air stream to give
feedback to a simple control algorithm can optimize fan use while safeguarding air
quality.

TYPICAL CHOICES FOR COOLING SYSTEMS FOR SMALL AND LARGE

BUILDINGS
Air conditioning system for small buildings
The choice of which air conditioner system to use depends upon a number of factors
including how large the area is to be cooled, the total heat generated inside the enclosed area,
etc. An HVAC designer would consider all the related parameters and suggest the system
most suitable for your space.

Window Air Conditioner

 Window air conditioner is the most commonly used air conditioner for single rooms.
In this air conditioner all the components, namely the compressor, condenser,
expansion valve or coil, evaporator and cooling coil are enclosed in a single box.
 This unit is fitted in a slot made in the wall of the room, or more commonly a window
sill.
 Window air conditioners are one of the most popular types of air conditioners being
used. Whether it’s your study room, bedroom, or hall, the window air conditioner can
be used for almost all types of spaces.
 To fit the window air conditioner in your room, you need to make a slot in one of the
walls of the room that is to be cooled. This system extends around two feet beyond

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 the wall in the back side; hence behind the wall some free space should be available
so that the hot air can be thrown easily from the condenser.
 The dew collected from the room is also thrown from the back of the air conditioner.
Thus window air conditioners can be used only if there is place available in the wall
to make the slot, and there is free space behind the wall for dissipating the heat and
dripping water.
 Window air conditioners are comprised of components like the compressor,
condenser, expansion valve or expansion coil, and the evaporator or the cooling coil,
all housed in a single box.
 There is also a motor which has shafts on both sides. On one side of the shaft the
blower is connected, which sucks hot air from the room and blows it over the cooling
coil, thus cooling it and sending it to the room. On the other shaft the fan is connected,
which blows the air over Freon gas passing through the condenser.
 The window air conditioner is the cheapest of all air conditioning systems. If your
room or office size is about less than 100 sq. ft. a window air conditioner of about 0.8
ton can be good enough.
 If the size of room is more than this but less than 200 sq. ft. your HVAC designer will
recommend a window air conditioner of about 1 ton. For rooms of bigger sizes but
less than 300 sq. ft. the system of about 1.5 ton is advisable.
 However, these sizes may change depending upon the number of people occupying
the space, its alignment with respect to sun, and other sources of heat generation
inside the room. It is better to consult your HVAC designer to find out the exact size
of window air conditioner suitable for your space.

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Split Air Conditioner
 The split air conditioner comprises of two parts: the outdoor unit and the indoor unit.
The outdoor unit, fitted outside the room, houses components like the compressor,
condenser and expansion valve.
 The indoor unit comprises the evaporator or cooling coil and the cooling fan. For this
unit you don’t have to make any slot in the wall of the room. Further, present day split
units have aesthetic appeal and do not take up as much space as a window unit. A split
air conditioner can be used to cool one or two rooms.

There are two main parts of the split air conditioner. These are:
Outdoor unit:
This unit houses important components of the air conditioner like the compressor, condenser
coil and also the expansion coil or capillary tubing. This unit is installed outside the room or
office space which is to be cooled. The compressor is the maximum noise making part of the
air conditioner, and since in the split air conditioner, it is located outside the room, the major
source of noise is eliminated. In the outdoor unit there is a fan that blows air over the
condenser thus cooling the compressed Freon gas in it. This gas passes through the expansion
coil and gets converted into low pressure, low temperature partial gas and partial liquid Freon
fluid.

Indoor unit:
 It is the indoor unit that produces the cooling effect inside the room or the office. This
is a beautiful looking tall unit usually white in colour, though these days a number of
stylish models of the indoor unit are being launched.

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  The indoor unit houses the evaporator coil or the cooling coil, a long blower and the
filter. After passing from the expansion coil, the chilled Freon fluid enters the cooling
coil.
 The blower sucks the hot, humid and filtered air from the room and it blows it over
the cooling coil. As the air passes over cooling coil its temperature reduces drastically
and also loses the excess moisture. The cool and dry air enters the room and maintains
comfortable conditions of around 25-27 degree Celsius as per the requirements.
 The temperature inside the space can be maintained by thermostat setting. The setting
should be such that comfortable conditions are maintained inside the room, and there
is also chance for the compressor to trip at regular intervals.
 If the compressor keeps running continuously without break, its life will reduce.
These days’ multi-split air conditioners are also being used commonly. In units for
one outdoor unit there are two indoor units which can be placed in two different
rooms or at two different locations inside a large room.
 Since there is long distance between the indoor and the outdoor unit, there is always
loss of some cooling effect; hence for the same tonnage, split air conditioners produce
somewhat less cooling effect than window air conditioners. However, with modern
insulation material this gap has been reducing between the two. In any case, there are
number of instances where there is just no alternative to the split air conditioners.

Packaged Air Conditioners

 The window and split air conditioners are usually used for the small air conditioning
capacities up to 5 tons. The central air conditioning systems are used for where the
cooling loads extend beyond 20 tons.
 The packaged air conditioners are used for the cooling capacities in between these
two extremes. The packaged air conditioners are available in the fixed rated capacities
of 3, 5, 7, 10 and 15 tons. These units are used commonly in places like restaurants,
telephone exchanges, homes, small halls, etc.
 As the name implies, in the packaged air conditioners all the important components of
the air conditioners are enclosed in a single casing like window AC. Thus the
compressor, cooling coil, air handling unit and the air filter are all housed in a single
casing and assembled at the factory location.
 Depending on the type of the cooling system used in these systems, the packaged air
conditioners are divided into two types: ones with water cooled condenser and the
ones with air cooled condensers. Both these systems have been described below:

Packaged Air Conditioners with Water Cooled Condenser

 In these packaged air conditions the condenser is cooled by the water. The condenser
is of shell and tube type, with refrigerant flowing along the tube side and the cooling
water flowing along the shell side.
 The water has to be supplied continuously in these systems to maintain functioning of
the air conditioning system.
 The shell and tube type of condenser is compact in shape and it is enclosed in a single
casing along with the compressor, expansion valve, and the air handling unit

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 including the cooling coil or the evaporator. This whole packaged air conditioning
unit externally looks like a box with the control panel located externally.

Centralized air conditioning

 Central air conditioning plants are used for applications like big hotels, large
buildings having multiple floors, hospitals, etc., where very high cooling loads are
required. The article describes various possible arrangements of central air
conditioning plants.
 The central air conditioning plants or the systems are used when large buildings,
hotels, theatres, airports, shopping malls etc. are to be air conditioned completely. The
window and split air conditioners are used for single rooms or small office spaces. If
the whole building is to be cooled it is not economically viable to put window or split
air conditioner in each and every room. Further, these small units cannot satisfactorily
cool the large halls, auditoriums, receptions areas etc.
 In the central air conditioning systems there is a plant room where large compressor,
condenser, thermostatic expansion valve and the evaporator are kept in the large plant
room.
 They perform all the functions as usual similar to a typical refrigeration system.
However, all these parts are larger in size and have higher capacities. The compressor
is of open reciprocating type with multiple cylinders and is cooled by the water just
like the automobile engine.
 The compressor and the condenser are of shell and tube type. While in the small air
conditioning system capillary is used as the expansion valve, in the central air
conditioning systems thermostatic expansion valve is used.
 The chilled air is passed via the ducts to all the rooms, halls and other spaces that are
to be air conditioned. Thus in all the rooms there is only the duct passing the chilled
air and there are no individual cooling coils, and other parts of the refrigeration
system in the rooms. What is we get in each room is the completely silent and highly
effective air conditions system in the room. Further, the amount of chilled air that is
needed in the room can be controlled by the openings depending on the total heat load
inside the room.
 The central air conditioning systems are highly sophisticated applications of the air
conditioning systems and many a times they tend to be complicated. It is due to this
reason that there are very few companies in the world that specialize in these systems.
In the modern era of computerization a number of additional electronic utilities have
been added to the central conditioning systems.
i. Direct expansion or DX central air conditioning plant: In this system the huge
compressor, and the condenser are housed in the plant room, while the expansion
valve and the evaporator or the cooling coil and the air handling unit are housed in
separate room. The cooling coil is fixed in the air handling unit, which also has large
blower housed in it. The blower sucks the hot return air from the room via ducts and
blows it over the cooling coil. The cooled air is then supplied through various ducts
and into the spaces which are to be cooled. This type of system is useful for small
buildings.

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 ii. Chilled water central air conditioning plant: This type of system is more useful for
large buildings comprising of a number of floors. It has the plant room where all the
important units like the compressor, condenser, throttling valve and the evaporator are
housed. The evaporator is a shell and tube. On the tube side the Freon fluid passes at
extremely low temperature, while on the shell side the brine solution is passed. After
passing through the evaporator, the brine solution gets chilled and is pumped to the
various air handling units installed at different floors of the building. The air handling
units comprise the cooling coil through which the chilled brine flows, and the blower.
The blower sucks hot return air from the room via ducts and blows it over the cooling
coil. The cool air is then supplied to the space to be cooled through the ducts. The
brine solution which has absorbed the room heat comes back to the evaporator, gets
chilled and is again pumped back to the air handling unit.

HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SERVICES FOR LARGE BUILDINGS

 Under-floor distribution Air-conditioning system distribution and terminal equipment
is generally located overhead in the ceiling void with the cool supply air entering the
room from ceiling diffusers.
 However, the supply of conditioned air from under the floor is a design option. In this
case, the air or water distribution and terminal devices are located in the floor void,
and hence the overhead services are reduced to only lighting and sprinklers.
 By making the floor void deep enough, the power, telecommunications and computer
wire ways may be incorporated into the one plenum, all being easily accessible by
merely opening up the raised floor.
 Under-floor cooling is particularly beneficial for spaces such computer rooms, as air
velocities from floor grilles and resultant noise levels are both much higher for
cooling of equipment than those which would be acceptable for people.

Services located below composite beams

Page 9 of 19
 Internal distribution of services for many reasons, there is pressure to minimise the
space allocated to the building services. Therefore, it is necessary to ensure an
efficient use of space for the service distribution system in the vertical and horizontal
directions and in the plant rooms.
 The following sections review the spatial aspects of the vertical and horizontal service
distribution.
 Conventionally, the horizontal distribution of services is arranged within a horizontal
layer which is generally located below the structure and above the suspended ceiling.
 This layer accommodates the distribution system (ducts, pipes, etc.), the terminal
units and lighting units. The raised floor is placed on the floor slab and accommodates
the electrical and communication cabling. The lighting units are often located within
the ceiling depth. To determine the spatial allowance for these elements, three design
cases may be envisaged corresponding to different structural configurations:
1. A flat slab with flexibility of service routing.
2. A slab and down stand beam arrangement.
3. A long span beam system with facility for service integration in the structural
depth.

Example of integrated services Case 2 – Slab and down stand beam arrangement

Services located below composite beams

Page 10 of 19
 Example of integrated services Case 3 – Long span beam with web openings

In case 1, the ducts pass below the floor within the depth allowed for the terminal units.
However, cross-overs of ducts must be avoided in order to minimize this depth. In cases 2
and 3, the terminal units may be located between the beams, which means that additional
space below the beams is required only for the major ducts, ceiling and lighting units. In case
3, the ducts are located entirely within the structural zone as they pass through large openings
in the deep beams. Typically, the diameter of these openings is 400mm, and the duct size is
300 or 350mm allowing for insulation etc. Vertical distribution of services
Case 2 Case 3
Case 1
Vertical dimensions for the Down stand Long span
Flat soffit
following components beams beams
(mm)
(mm) (mm)

Allowance - deflection & fire

30 50 50 to 75
protection

Lighting units and ceiling 100 to 150 100 100

Nil Nil
VAV box and attachments 400
(boxes between beams)
<400 but no
Ducts and insulation
cross-overs
Total (below structure) 550 500 150 to 175
Raised floor 150 150 150
Structural depth (typical) 300 to 400 550 800 to 900

Total (ceiling-floor) 1,000 to 1,100 1,200 1,100 to 1,200

Typical vertical dimensions between ceiling and floor

The following recommendations apply to the vertical distribution of services:

 Provide continuous and uninterrupted vertical service routes
 Maintain a constant cross-section of the service route

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  Position the plant room so that it is as close as possible to the centre of the plan area it
serves
 Consider the connection between horizontal services and vertical services routes
 Provide separate routes for different services. The minimum is two; one for electrics
and one for water pipes, etc., although most buildings require more service routes
 Horizontal distribution should ideally not extend more than 25 m from a vertical
service route. Longer distances will impose penalties on the system design and
increase the depth of horizontal service ducts
 Position plant rooms at no more than 10 storeys apart vertically.
The figure shows typical arrangements of vertical service routes. Vertical ducts which
transfer air from the roof-top plant to each floor can often be concentrated in a relatively
small riser, as shown below
Type Plant Notes
Small building (up to four One plant room, one riser.
storeys and up to 2500 m2 Location of riser not
total floor area) important, due to small size
of building (Central location
preferred). Plant room must
be adjacent to
the riser
Large plan building (4000 Several plant rooms adjacent
m2 total floor area) to areas served. Some
central plant, for example
for gas intake and boilers,
may be required
Large, tall building (over 15 Plant room floors at
storeys) basement and roof level.
Intermediate plant rooms
may be required. Vertical
distribution within
central core
L-shaped building (1000 m2 Several plant rooms, several
to 3000 m2 per floor), (3 -10 risers. Risers and air plant
storeys) rooms adjacent to cores.
Separate room located at
ground/basement level for
new electric supply
Building with atrium Four roof air plant rooms,
(typically 2000 m2 per one basement plant room.
floor), (5 – 10 storeys) Four risers related to cores.
Basement plant below
atrium gives best connection
to risers
Typical arrangements of plant rooms and vertical service routes

Page 12 of 19
Types of ducts

Page 13 of 19
Radial Duct system

Page 14 of 19
HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OF SERVICES THROUGH CENTRAL
CORRIDOR
 The horizontal distribution system for mechanical and electrical services should be
planned simultaneously with the structural frame and the interior finish systems,
because the three are strongly interrelated.
 The floor to floor height of a building is determined in part by the vertical dimension
needed at every story for horizontal runs of duct work and piping.
 The selection of finish ceiling, partition and floor systems is often based on their
ability to contain the necessary electrical and mechanical services and to adjust to
future changes in these services. All these strategies involve close cooperation among
the architect and the structural and mechanical engineers.
 Plumbing walls, they will not interfere with other services. Sprinkler heads which
have the next highest priority in the layout of horizontal services are served from the
fire stand pipe by horizontal piping that seldom exceeds 4 in. (100mm) in outside
diameter.
 The spacing of the heads is coordinated with the placement of walls and partitions the
maximum coverage per head is about 200 sq. ft. (18.6 m2) in light hazard buildings
such as churches, schools, hospitals, office buildings, museums and auditoriums.
Coverage in industrial and storage buildings ranges from 130 to 90 sq. ft. (12.1 to 8.4
m2) per head, depending on the substances handled in the building.
 Air conditioning ducts, the next priority branch out from a local fan room or from a
vertical ducts in supply and return ducts. Return ducts are often very short and
confined to the interior areas of the building.
 Supply ducts extend through low velocity secondary ducts to air diffusers throughout
the occupied area of the floor. Diffusers are generally required at the rate of four to
seven diffusers per 1000 sq. ft. (100m2).

Page 15 of 19
 Plan of VAV Duct

GROUPED HORIZONTAL DISTRIBUTION OVER CENTRAL CORRIDORS

 Sometimes the major runs of duct work, piping and wiring can be grouped in the
ceiling area above the central corridor of each floor of a building, leaving the ceilings
of the surrounding rooms essentially clean.
 This works especially well in hotels and apartment buildings that rely on above
ceiling all water or electric equipment adjacent to corridor for heating, cooling and
ventilating.
 A low corridor ceiling is readily accepted in exchange for high, unobstructed space in
the occupied rooms, where the structure may be left exposed as the finish ceiling,
saving cost and floor to floor height.
 If the building has a two way flat plate or hollow core precast slab floor structure, the
overall thickness of the ceiling floor structure can be reduced to as little as 8 in. (200
mm). Conduits containing wiring for the lighting fixtures may be cast into the floor
slabs or exposed on the surface of the ceilings.

Grouped Horizontal Distribution over a Central Corridor

Page 16 of 19
IN FLOOR AND RAISED ACCESS FLOOR DISTRIBUTION OF MECHANICAL
SERVICES
 Underfloor air distribution (UFAD) is an air distribution strategy for providing
ventilation and space conditioning in buildings as part of the design of an HVAC
system.
 UFAD systems use an underfloor supply plenum located between the structural
concrete slab and a raised floor system to supply conditioned air through floor
diffusers directly into the occupied zone of the building.
 Thermal stratification is one of the featured characteristic of UFAD system, which
allows higher thermostat set points compared to the traditional overhead systems
(OH).
 UFAD cooling load profile is different from a traditional OH system due to the impact
of raised floor, particularly UFAD may has higher peak cooling load than OH
systems.
 UFAD has several potential advantages over traditional overhead systems, including
layout flexibility, improved thermal comfort, improved ventilation efficiency,
improved energy efficiency in suitable climates and reduced life cycle costs.
 UFAD is often used in office buildings, particularly highly-reconfigurable and open
plan offices where raised floors are desirable for cable management.
 UFAD is appropriate for a number of different building types including commercials,
schools, churches, airports, museums, libraries etc.
 Careful considerations need to be paid in the construction phase of UFAD systems to
ensure a well-sealed plenum to avoid air leakage in UFAD supply plenum.
DISTRIBUTION ABOVE STRUCTURAL FLOOR
 A raised access floor system allows maximum flexibility in running services because
it can accommodate piping, ductwork, and wiring with equal ease.
 It is especially useful in industrial or office areas where large number of computers or
computer terminals are used and where frequent wiring changes are likely.
 Through floors can be raised to any desired height above the structural deck, heights
of 4 to 8 in. (100 to 200 mm) are most common. Less costly lower profile systems
ranging from 21/2 to 3 in. (65 to 75 mm) in height are also available.

Page 17 of 19
DISTRIBUTION ABOVE SUSPENDED CEILING
 Above a ceiling wiring is run in conduits or cable trays attached to the structure
above. Lighting fixtures are served directly from this horizontal wiring. Outlets on the
floor below may be served by electrified partitions or power poles.
 Conventionally, the horizontal distribution of services is arranged within a horizontal
layer which is generally located below the structure and above the suspended ceiling.
 This layer accommodates the distribution system (ducts, pipes, etc.), the terminal
units and lighting units.
 The raised floor is placed on the floor slab and accommodates the electrical and
communication cabling. The lighting units are often located within the ceiling depth.

Advantages
 Improved employee comfort
 Reduced energy costs

Page 18 of 19
 Improved IAQ
 Improved productivity and health
 Reduced floor to floor heights
 Reduced life cycle building costs

 UFAD systems rely on air handling units to filter and condition air to the appropriate
supply conditions so it can be delivered to the occupied zone.
 While overhead systems typically use ducts to distribute the air, UFAD systems use
the underfloor plenum formed by installation of a raised floor.
 The plenum generally sits 0.3 and 0.46 metres (12 and 18 in) above the structural
concrete slab, although lower heights are possible.
 Specially designed floor diffusers are used as the supply outlets. The most common
UFAD configuration consists of a central air handling unit delivering air through a
pressurized plenum and into the space through floor diffusers.
 Other approaches may incorporate fan powered terminal units at the outlets,
underfloor ducts, desktop vents or connections to Personal Environmental Control
Systems.

Page 19 of 19
 AR 6611 REGULATION
2013
BUILDING
YEAR
SERVICES III 2018 - 2019
SEMESTER : VI

UNIT IV –
FIRE SAFETY: DESIGN AND GENERAL GUIDELINES
OF EGRESS DESIGN - FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE
FIGHTING AND INSTALLA TION
FACULTY IN-CHARGE: VANDHANA MURALIDHARAN
TOPICS
Principles of fire behaviour --------------------------------------------------------------------------- 02

Fire safety design principles -------------------------------------------------------------------------- 06

NBC Planning considerations in buildings --------------------------------------------------------- 06

Egress systems ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 14

Exterior corridors --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

Smoke proof enclosures ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

General guidelines for egress design ---------------------------------------------------------------- 18

Accessibility for disabled ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- 28

Fire Detection and Fire Fighting --------------------------------------------------------------------- 29

Sprinkler systems -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 34

Fire fighting pump ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 36

Water requirements & storage ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 35

Wet risers & Dry rises --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 38

Fire extinguishers & cabinets ------------------------------------------------------------------------- 41

Snorkel ladder ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------ 49

Configuring, sizing and space requirements for fire fighting equipment ----------------------- 50

Page 1 of 52
PRINCIPLES OF FIRE BEHAVIOUR
Transmission of Heat

Heat is transferred from regions of higher temperature to regions of lower temperature. This
transmission or transfer of heat is achieved through three methods

 Conduction
 Convection
 Radiation
Conduction

 Solids are better heat conductors than liquids or gases. Thermal conductivity, or the
ability to conduct heat, varies between materials.
 Most metals are good conductors, the best conductors being silver and copper.
Generally, good conductors of electricity are good conductors of heat also, and vice-
versa.
 In fires, thermal conductivity is relevant in terms of the danger of fire spread. A steel
beam passing through a wall can be the cause of fire spread from one room to another.
 A plain metal door can conduct heat from one side to another, whereas a wooden door
will not, since wood is a poor conductor. The conductivity of building materials has
an important role in the fire resistance capability of elements of structure.

Page 2 of 52
Convection

 Convection requires a circulating medium for transmission of heat and occurs only in
liquids and gases. It transports the enormous amount of chemical energy released
during a fire to the surrounding environment by the movement and circulation of hot
gases.
 Convection is used in domestic heating systems or radiators. Convection also causes
the up-draft in chimneys or the stack effect.
 In a multi-storey building fire, convection currents can convey hot gases and smoke
towards through stairwells and open lift shafts, spreading the fire to the upper floors
through open doors and false ceilings.

Radiation

 Radiation is a form of energy that travels through a space without an intervening

medium, such as a solid or a fluid. It is through the same method by which heat from
the sun passes through the empty space to warm the earth.
 It travels as electromagnetic waves, similar to light, radio waves, and x-rays. In a
vacuum, all electro-magnetic waves travel at the speed of light (300,000 km/sec.).
When it falls on a body, it can be absorbed, reflected and / or transmitted.
 In a fire, the hot gases rise vertically upwards in a plume that carries with it most of
the heat (70% - 90%) released in the combustion process, depending upon the fuel.
The rest of the heat is transmitted as radiation.
 However, larger fires involving ordinary fuels may release 30 to 50 percent of the
total amount of energy as radiation, exposing nearby surfaces to high levels of radiant
heat transfer.
 Water vapour and CO2 in the atmosphere, which will generally be present in fires,
absorb appreciable amount of thermal radiation emitted from large fires. This is the
reason why forest fires are relatively less hazardous when humidity is high.
 Water droplets are capable of absorbing almost all the incident infra-red radiation
thereby cooling to surroundings. This is the reason why fire fighters normally enter a
burning building or room with hose hand lines fitted with water spray/fog nozzles.

Constituents of Fire
Combustion Process

 An understanding of the basic principles of combustion or fire, causes and sources of

ignition, fire growth and fire spread is necessary for understanding the principles of
fire control and extinguishment.
 Combustion usually involves an exothermic chemical reaction between a substance or
fuel and oxygen.

Triangle of fire

Page 3 of 52
  One way of discussing fire or combustion is in terms of the triangle of fire or
combustion. It has been seen that for combustion to occur three factors are essential;
heat, oxygen (or air) and a combustible substance (or fuel).
 Fire or combustion will continue as long as these three factors are present. Removal
of one of them leads to the collapse of the triangle and the combustion process stops.

Fire Triangle

Fire Extinction Methods

It has been shown from the triangle of fire that three factors are essential for combustion
namely;
 The presence of a fuel, or combustible substances.
 The presence of oxygen (usually as air) or other supporter of combustion.
 The attainment and maintenance of a certain minimum temperature (Heat).
Fire extinction or elimination of fire may be classified conveniently under the following
headings:
 Starvation (or the limitation of fuel);
 Smothering / Blanketing (or the limitation of oxygen); and
 Cooling (or the limitation of temperature)
Starvation
The extinction of fire by starvation is applied in three ways:
 By removing combustible material from the neighbourhood of the fire. Examples of
these are, the drainage of fuel from burning oil tanks.
 By removing the fire from the neighbourhood of combustible material
 By sub-dividing the burning material, when the smaller fires produced may be left to
burn out or to be extinguished more easily by other means.
Smothering
 If the oxygen content of the atmosphere in the immediate neighbourhood of burning
material can be sufficiently reduced combustion will cease.
 The general procedure in methods of this type is to prevent or impede the access of
fresh air to the seat of the fire, and allow the combustion to reduce the oxygen content
in the confined atmosphere until it extinguishes itself.

Page 4 of 52
  An important practical application of the smothering method is the use of foam. This
forms a viscous coating over the burning material and limits, in so far as it is
complete, the supply of air.
 Another method of smothering is by the application of a cloud of finely divided
particles of dry powder, usually sodium bicarbonate from a pressurized extinguisher.
Cooling
 If the rate at which heat is generated by combustion is less than the rate at which it is
dissipated through various agencies, combustion cannot persist.
 The cooling principle in fire extinction is the one most commonly employed.
 The water should be applied to a fire in the liquid condition and in such a way that as
much as possible is converted to steam.

Fire Extinction Methods

Classification of fires
Class A
 These are fires involving solid materials normally of an organic nature (compounds of
carbon), in which combustion generally occurs with the formation of glowing embers.
 Class A fires are the most common. Effective extinguishing agent is generally water
in the form of a jet or spray.
Class B
These are fires involving liquids or liquefiable solids. For the purpose of choosing effective
extinguishing agents, flammable liquids may be divided into two groups:
i. Those that are miscible with water, and
ii. Those that is immiscible with water.
iii. Depending on (i) and (ii), the extinguishing agents include water spray, foam,
vaporizing liquids, and carbon dioxide and chemical powders.
Class C
 These are fires involving gases or liquefied gases in the form of a liquid spillage, or a
liquid or gas leak, and these include methane, propane, butane, etc.

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  Foam or dry chemical powder can be used to control fires involving shallow liquid
spills. (Water in the form of spray is generally used to cool the containers)
Class D
 These are fires involving metals. Extinguishing agents containing water are
ineffective, and even dangerous.
 Carbon dioxide and the bicarbonate classes of dry chemical powders may also be
hazardous if applied to most metal fires.
 Powdered graphite, powdered talc, soda ash, limestone and dry sand are normally
suitable for class D fires.

FIRE SAFETY DESIGN PRINCIPLES –NBC PLANNING CONSIDERATION IN

BUILDINGS
Fire Escapes or External Stairs
 All fire escapes shall be directly connected to the ground.
 Entrance to the fire escape shall be separate and remote from internal staircase.
 The route to fire escape shall be free of obstructions at all times except the doorway
leading to the fire escape which shall have the required fire resistance.
 Fire escape shall be constructed of non-combustible materials.
 Fire escape stairs shall have straight flight not less than 125 cm wide with 25 cm
treads and risers not more than 19 cm.
 Handrails shall be at a height not less than 100 cm.
 Fire escape staircase in the mercantile, business, assembly, hotel buildings above 24
m. height shall be a fire tower and in such a case width of the same shall not be less
than the width of the main staircase. No combustible material shall be allowed in the
fire tower.
Spiral Stairs
 The use of spiral staircase shall be limited to low occupant load and to a building
height 9 m.
 A spiral stair shall not be less than 150 cm in diameter and shall be designed to give
the adequate headroom.
Staircase Enclosures
 The external enclosing walls of the staircase shall be of the brick or the R.C.C.
construction having fire resistance of not less than two hours.
 All enclosed staircases shall have access through self-closing door of one-hour fire
resistance.
 These shall be single swing doors opening in the direction of the escape.
 The staircase enclosures on the external wall of the building shall be ventilated to the
atmosphere at each landing.

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  Permanent vent at the top equal to the 5% of the cross sectional area of the enclosure
and open able sashes at each floor level with area equal to 1 to 15% of the cross
sectional area of the enclosure on external shall be provided.
 The roof of the shaft shall be at least 1 m. above the surrounding roof. There shall be
no glazing or the glass bricks in any internal closing wall of staircase.
 The mechanism for pressurizing the staircase shaft shall be so installed that the same
shall operate automatically on fire alarm system/sprinkler system and be provided
with manual operation facilities.
Provision of Lifts
 Provision of the lifts shall be made for all multi-storeyed building having a height of
15.0 m. and above.
 All the floors shall be accessible for 24 hrs. by the lift. The lift provided in the
buildings shall not be considered as a means of escape in case of emergency.
 Grounding switch at ground floor level to enable the fire service to ground the lift car
in case of emergency shall also be provided.
 The lift machine room shall be separate and no other machinery be installed in it.
Lift Enclosure/lift
General requirements shall be as follows
a) Walls of lift enclosures shall have a fire rating of two hours.
b) Lift motor room shall be located preferably on top of the shaft and separated from the
shaft by the floor of the room.
c) Landing door in lift enclosures shall have a fire resistance of not less than one hour.
d) The number of lifts in one lift bank shall not exceed four. A wall of two hours fire
rating shall separate individual shafts in a bank.
e) Lift car door shall have a fire resistance rating of 1 hour.
f) For buildings 15.0 m. and above in height, collapsible gates shall not be permitted for
lifts and solid doors with fire resistance of at least one hour shall be provided.
g) If the lift shaft and lobby is in the core of the building a positive pressure between 25
and 30 pa shall be maintained in the lobby and a possible pressure of 50 pa shall be
maintained in the lift shaft. The mechanism for the pressurization shall act
automatically with the fire alarm/sprinkler system and it shall be possible to operate
this mechanically also.
h) Exit from the lift lobby, if located in the core of the building, shall be through a self-
closing fire smoke check door of one-hour fire resistance.
i) Lift shall not normally communicate with the basement. If however, lifts are in
communication, the lift lobby of the basement shall be pressurized as in (g) with self-
closing door as in (h).
j) Grounding switch (es), at ground floor level shall be provided to enable the fire
service to ground the lifts.
k) Telephone/talk back communication facilities may be provided in lift cars for
communication system and lifts shall be connected to the fire control room of the
building.

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 l) Suitable arrangements such as providing slope in the floor of the lift lobby shall be
made to prevent water used during fire fighting, etc at any landing from entering the
lift shafts.
m) A sign shall be posted and maintained on every floor at or near the lift indicating that
in case of fire, occupants shall use the stairs unless instructed otherwise. The sign
shall also contain a plan for each floor showing the location of the stairways. Floor
marking shall be done at each floor on the wall in front of the lift-landing door.
n) Alternate power supply shall be provided in all the lifts.
Fire Lift
Following details shall apply for a fire lift in addition to above requirements:
a) To enable fire service personnel to reach the upper floors with the minimum delay,
one or more of the lifts shall be so designed so as to be available for the exclusive use
of the fireman in an emergency and be directly accessible to every dwelling/let table
floor space on each floor.
b) The lift shall have a floor area of not less than 1.4 sq.mt. It shall have a loading
capacity of not less than 545 kg. (8 persons lift) with automatic closing doors.
c) The electric supply shall be on a separate service from electric supply mains in a
building and the cables run in a route safe from fire that is within a lift shaft. Lights
and fans in the elevator having wooden panelling or sheet steel construction shall be
operated on 24-volt supply.

Fire Lift

d) In case of failure of normal electric supply, it shall automatically switch over to the
alternate supply. For apartment houses, this changeover of supply could be done
through manually operated changeover switch. Alternatively, the lift should be so
wired that in case of power failure, it comes down at the ground level and comes to
stand still with door open.
e) The operation of a fire lift shall by a single toggle of two-button switch situated in a
glass-fronted box adjacent to the lift at the entrance level. When the switch is on
landing; call points will become inoperative and the lift will be on car control only or
on a priority control device. When the switch is off, the lift will return to normal
working. This lift can be used by the occupants in normal times.

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 f) The words 'F1RE LIFT' shall be conspicuously displayed in fluorescent paint on the
lift landing doors at each floor level.
g) The speed of the fire lift shall be such that it can reach to the top floor from ground
level within one minute.
Basement
 The access to the basement shall be either from the main or alternate staircase
providing access and exit from higher floors. Where the staircase is continue the same
shall be enclosed type serving as a fire separation from the basement floor and higher
floors.
 In case of basement for office, sufficient number of exit ways and access ways shall
be provided with a travel distance not more than 15.0 m. The travel distance in case of
dead-end shall be 7.5 m.
 The basement shall be partitioned and in no case compartment shall be more than 500
sq m. and less than 50 sq m. area except parking. Each compartment shall have
ventilation standards as laid down in Bye-Laws separately and independently. The
partition shall be made in consultation with Chief Fire Officer.
 The first basement (immediately below ground level) can be used for
services/parking/other permissible services. Lower basement, if provided, shall
exclusively be used for car parking only.
 Each basement shall be separately ventilated. Vents with cross-sectional area
(aggregate) not less than 2.5 percent of the floor area spread evenly round the
perimeter of the basement shall be provided in the form of grills or breakable
starboard lights or pavement lights or by way of shafts.
 Alternatively a system of air inlets shall be provided at basement floor level and
smoke outlets at basement ceiling level. Inlets and extracts may be terminated at
ground level with starboard or pavement lights as before. But ducts to convey fresh
air to the basement floor level have to be laid. Starboard and pavement lights should
be in positions easily accessible to the firemen and clearly marked "SMOKE
OUTLET" or AIR INLET" with an indication of area served at or near the opening.
 The staircase of basement shall be of enclosed type having fire resistance of not less
than two hours and shall be situated at the periphery of the basement to be entered at
ground level only from the open air and in such positions that smoke from any fire in
the basement shall not obstruct any exit serving the ground and upper stories of the
building and shall communicate with basement through a lobby provided with fire
resisting self-closing door of one hour rating. In case of basement being used as car
parking only, the travel distance shall be 45 m.
 In multi-storeyed basements, intake duct may serve all basements levels, but each
basement and basement compartment shall have separate smoke outlet duct or ducts.
Mechanical extractors for smoke venting system from lower basement levels shall
also be provided. The system shall be of such design as to operate on actuation of
smoke, heat sensitive detectors/sprinklers, if installed, and shall have a considerably
superior performance compared to the standard units. It shall also have an
arrangement to start it manually.
 Mechanical extractors shall have an internal locking arrangement so that extractors
shall continue to operate and supply fans shall stop automatically with the actuation of

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 fire detectors. Mechanical extractors shall be designed to permit 30 air changes per
hour in case of fire or distress call. However, for normal operation, only 30 air
changes or any other convenient factor can be maintained.
 Mechanical extractors shall have an alternate source of power supply.
 Ventilating ducts shall be integrated with the structure and made out of brick masonry
or RCC as far as possible and when this duct crosses the transformer area of electrical
switchboard, fire dampers shall be provided.
 Kitchens working on gas fuel shall not be permitted in basement/sub-basement.
 If cut-outs are provided from basement to the upper floors or to the atmosphere, all
side cut-out openings in the basements shall be protected by sprinkler heads at closed
spacing so as to form a water curtain in the event of a fire.
 Dewatering pump shall be provided in all basements.

Service Ducts/Refuge Chute

a) Service duct shall be enclosed by walls and door of 2 hours fire rating. If ducts are
larger than 10 sq m. the floor should seal them, but provide suitable opening for the
pipes to pass through, with the gaps sealed.
b) A vent opening at the top of the service shaft shall be provided between one-fourth
and one-half of the area of the shaft. Refuge chutes shall have an outlet at least of wall
of non-combustible material with fire resistance of not less than two hours. They shall
not be located within the staircase enclosure or service shafts or air-conditioning
shafts. Inspection panel and door shall be tight fitting with 1 hour fire resistance; the
chutes should be as far away as possible form exits.
c) Refuge chutes shall not be provided in staircase walls and A/C shafts etc.
Electrical Services
a) Electrical Services shall conform to the following:
b) The electric distribution cables/wiring shall be laid in a separate duct shall be sealed at
every floor with non-combustible material having the same fire resistance as that of
the duct. Low and medium voltage wiring running in shaft and in false ceiling shall
run in separate conduits.
c) Water mains, telephone wires, inter-com lines, gas pipes or any other service lines
shall not be laid in ducts for electric cables.
d) Separate conduits for water pumps, lifts, staircases and corridor lighting and blowers
for pressuring system shall be directly from the main switch panel and these circuits
shall be laid in separate conduit pipes, so that fire in one circuit will not affect the
others. Master switches controlling essential service circuits shall be clearly labelled.
e) The inspection panel doors and any other opening in the shaft shall be provided with
airtight fire doors having fire resistance of not less than 1 hour.
f) Medium and low voltage wiring running in shafts, and within false ceiling shall run in
metal conduits. Any 230 voltage wiring for lighting or other services, above false
ceiling should have 660V grade insulation. The false ceiling including all fixtures
used for its suspension shall be of non-combustible material.

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 g) An independent and well-ventilated service room shall be provided on the ground
floor with direct access from outside or from the corridor for the purpose of
termination of electrical supply from the licenses service and alternative supply
cables. The doors provided for the service room shall have fire resistance of not less
than 1 hour
h) MCB shall be provided for electrical circuit.
Staircase and Corridor Lights
a) The staircase and corridor lighting shall be on separate circuits and shall be
independently connected so that it could be operated by one switch installation on the
ground floor easily accessible to fire fighting staff at any time irrespective of the
position of the individual control of the light points, if any. It should be of miniature
circuit breaker type of switch so as to avoid replacement of fuse in case of crisis.
b) Suitable arrangement shall be made by installing double throw switches to ensure that
the lighting installed in the staircase and the corridor does not get connected to two
sources of supply simultaneously. Double throw switch shall be installed in the
service room for terminating the stand by supply.
c) Emergency lights shall be provided in the staircase and corridor.
Air-Conditioning
a) Air- conditioning system should be installed and maintained so as to minimise the
danger of spread of fire, smoke or fumes thereby from one floor of fire area to another
or from outside into any occupied building or structure.
b) Air -Conditioning systems circulating air to more than one floor area should be
provided with dampers designed to close automatically in case of fire and thereby
prevent spread of fire or smoke. Such a system should also be provided with
automatic controls to stop fans in case of fire, unless arranged to remove smoke from
a fire, in which case these should be designed to remain in operation.
c) Air- conditioning system serving large places of assembly (over one thousand
persons), large departmental stores, or hostels with over 100 rooms in a single block
should be provided with effective means for preventing circulation of smoke through
the system in the case of fire in air filters or from other sources drawn into the system
even though there is insufficient heat to actuate heat smoke sensitive devices
controlling fans or dampers. Such means shall consist of approved effective smoke
sensitive controls.
Air- Conditioning should conform to the following
a) Escape routes like staircase, common corridors, lift lobbies; etc should not be used as
return air passage.
b) The ducting should be constructed of metal in accordance with BIS 655:1963
c) Wherever the ducts pass through fire walls or floor, the opening around the ducts
should be sealed with fire resisting material of same rating as of walls / floors.
d) Metallic ducts should be used even for the return air instead of space above the false
ceiling.
e) The material used for insulating the duct system (inside or outside) should be of flame
resistant (IS 4355: 1977) and non- conductor of heat.

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 f) Area more than 750 sq m. on individual floor should be segregated by a firewall and
automatic fire dampers for isolation should be provided.
g) In case of more than one floor, arrangement by way of automatic fire dampers for
isolating the ducting at every floor from the floor should be made. Where plenums
used for return air passage, ceiling and its features and air filters of the air handling
units, these should be flame resistant. Inspection panels should be provided in the
main trenching. No combustible material should be fixed nearer than 15 cm. to any
duct unless such ducting is properly enclosed and protected with flame resistant
material.
h) In case of buildings more than 24 m. in height, in non-ventilated lobbies, corridors,
smoke extraction shaft should be provided.
Alternate Source of Electric Supply
A stand by electric generator shall be installed to supply power to staircase and corridor
lighting circuits, lifts detection system, fire pumps, pressurization fans and bowlers, P.A
system, exit sign, smoke extraction system, in case of failure of normal electric supply. The
generator shall be capable of taking starting current of all the machines and circuits stated
above simultaneously.
If the standby pump is driven by diesel engine, the generator supply need not be connected to
the standby pump. The generator shall be automatic in operation.
Safety Measures in Electric Sub-Station
1. Clear independent approach to the sub-station from outside the building shall be made
available round the clock
2. The approaches/corridors to the sub-station area shall be kept clear for movement of
men and material at all times.
3. The sub-station space is required to be provided with proper internal lighting
arrangements.
4. In addition to natural ventilation proper ventilation to the sub-station area is to be
provided by grill shutters and exhaust fans at suitable places so as to discharge all
smoke from the sub-station without delay in case of fire so that sub-station operations
can be carried out expeditiously.
5. Cable trenches of 0.6 m. X 0.6 m. dummy floor of 0.6 mt. depth shall be provided to
facilitate laying of cable inside the building for connecting to the equipment.
6. Steel shutters of 8’X 8’ with suitable grills shall be provided for transformers and sub-
station room.
7. The floor of the sub-station should be capable of carrying 10 tons of transformer
weight on wheels.
8. Built up substation space is to be provided free of cost.
9. Sub-station space should be clear from any water, sewer, air conditioning, and gas
pipe or telephone services. No other service should pass through the substation space
or the cable trenches.
10. Proper ramp with suitable slope may be provided for loading and unloading of the
equipment and proper approach will be provided.

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11. RCC pipes at suitable places as required will be provided for the cable entries to the
substation space and making suitable arrangement for non-ingress of water through
these pipes.
12. The substation space is to be provided in the approved/sanctioned covered area of the
building.
13. Any other alteration /modification required while erection of the equipment will be
made by the Owner / builder at site as per requirement.
14. Adequate arrangement for fixing chain pulley block above the fixing be available for
load of 15 tons.
15. Provision shall be kept for the sumps so as to accommodate complete volume of
transformer oil, which can spill over in the event of explosion of the transformer in
the basement of the building. Sufficient arrangement should exist to avoid fire in the
sub-station building from spread of the oil from the sumps.
16. Arrangement should be made for the provision of fire retardant cables so as to avoid
chances of spread of fire in the sub-station building.
17. Sufficient pumping arrangement should exist for pumping the water out, in case of
fire so as to ensure minimum loss to the switchgear and transformer.
18. No combustible material should be stacked inside the substation premises or in the
vicinity to avoid chances of fire.
19. It should be made mandatory that the promoters of the multi-storeyed building should
get substation premises inspected once a year to get their license revalidated for the
provision of electric supply from Electricity Board so that suitable action can be taken
against the Owner / Builder in case of non- implementation of Bye-Laws.
20. The sub-station must not be located below the 1st basement and above the ground
floor.
21. The substation space should be totally segregated from the other areas of the
basement by fire resisting wall. The ramp should have a slope of 1: 10 with entry
from ground level. The entire Sub-station space including the entrance at ground floor
be handed over to the licensee of electricity free of cost and rent.
22. The sub-station area shall have a clear height of 12 feet (3.65 m.) below beams.
Further the Sub-station area will have level above the rest of basement level by 2 feet.
23. It is to be ensured that the Sub-station area is free of seepage / leakage of water.
24. The licensee of electricity will have the power to disconnect the supply of the building
in case of violation of any of the above points.
25. Electric substation enclosure must be completely segregated with 4-hours fire rating
wall from remaining part of basement.
26. The Sub-station should be located on periphery /sub-basement and (not above ground
floor).
27. Additional exit shall be provided if travel distance from farthest corner to ramp is
more than l5 m.
28. Perfect independent vent system 30 air changes per hour linked with detection as well
as automatic high velocity water spray system shall be provided.
29. All the transformers shall be protected with high velocity water spray system /
Nitrogen Injection System Carbon Dioxide total flooding system in case of oil filled
transformer. In addition to this, manual control of auto high velocity spray system for
individual transformers shall be located outside the building at ground floor.

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 30. Suitable arrangement for pump house, water storage tanks with main electrical pump
and a diesel-operated pump shall be made if no such arrangement is provided in the
building. In case the water pumping facilities are existing in the building for sprinkler
system, the same should however be utilized for high velocity water spray system.
Alternatively automatic CO2 total flooding system shall be provided with manual
controls outside the electric sub-station.
31. System shall have facility to give an audio alarm in the basement as well as at the
control room.
32. Fire control room shall be manned round the clock.
33. The electric substation shall have electric supply from alternate source for operation
of vent System lighting arrangements.
34. Cable trenches shall be filled with sand
35. Party walls shall be provided between two transformers as per the rules.
36. Electric control panels shall be segregated.
37. Exits from basement electric substation shall have self-closing fire smoke check doors
of 2-hours fire rating near entry to ramp.

NON-COMBUSTIBLE MATERIAL
 A non-combustible material is a substance that will not ignite, burn, support
combustion, or release flammable vapours when subject to fire or heat, in the form in
which it is used and under conditions anticipated.
Passing Criteria 1
 Weight loss of the specimen cannot exceed 50%.
 Temperatures on the surface of the specimen and at the geometric centre of the
specimen during the test may not rise more than 54o F (30oC) above the equilibrium
temperature of the furnace measured prior to introducing the specimen.
 During the first 30 seconds of the test, there can be no flaming from the specimen.
Passing Criteria 2
 If more than 50% of the weight of the specimen is lost, the material may still be
classified as non-combustible provided both of the following conditions are met.
 Temperatures on the surface of the specimen and at the geometric centre of the
specimen during the test may not rise above the equilibrium temperature of the
furnace measured prior to introducing the specimen.
 No flaming from the specimen can occur at any time during the test.
Examples of non-combustible materials include
 Portland cement concrete, gypsum concrete (normally used in drywall or poured
gypsum floor toppings), or magnesite (magnesium oxide) concrete having aggregates
of sand, gravel, expanded vermiculite, expanded or vesicular slags, diatomaceous
silica, perlite, or pumice. This class of products includes Portland cement stucco,
Portland cement plaster, and gypsum plaster, as well as concrete.
 Brick masonry, concrete block masonry, and ceramic tiles.

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  Metals except aluminium (aluminium is classified as limited combustible),
magnesium and magnesium alloys. d. Sheet glass, block glass.
EGRESS SYSTEMS
A continuous and unobstructed path of travel from any point in a building or structure to a
public way that consists of the following three separate and distinct parts:
Exit access: The travel path or area that leads from where a person is located to the entrance
to an exit.
Exit: That portion of a means of egress that is separated by construction or equipment from
other areas of the building. Exit components include walls, floor, doors, or other means that
provide the protected path necessary for the occupants to proceed with reasonable safety to
the exterior of the building. An exit may comprise vertical or horizontal means of travel such
as doorways, stairways, ramps, corridors, and passageways. Types of permissible exits are
doors leading directly outside or through a protected passageway to the outside, smoke-proof
towers, interior and outside stairs, ramps, and escalators in existing buildings. Elevators are
not accepted as exits.
Exit discharge: That portion of a means of egress between the end of the exit and a public
way or other safe place.
Arrangement of means of egress
Location
 At least two exits should be provided for all areas. These exits must be remotely
located from each other and arranged and constructed to minimize the possibility that
more than one may be blocked by any one fire or other emergency condition.
 For all new construction, the “diagonal” rule requires exits to be separated by at least
half of the diagonal distance of the area served.
ACCESS TO AN EXIT (MAXIMUM TRAVEL DISTANCE)
 The codes specify the travel distance allowed to reach an exit. This is an extremely
important feature since a person could be exposed to fire or smoke conditions during
the time it takes to reach an exit.
 A general rule is the maximum travel distance to at least one exit shall not exceed 150
feet in buildings not sprinklered or exceed 200 feet in buildings protected throughout
by an approved supervised sprinkler system.
 Depending on the occupancy, additional limitations on dead-end corridors and
common pathways are required in the travel distances to an exit.
Impediments to egress
 In no case shall access to an exit be through kitchens, storerooms, restrooms,
workrooms, bedrooms, or similar spaces, and exit access doors leading to exits must
be designed and arranged to be clearly recognizable.
 Hangings or draperies should not be placed over exit doors or otherwise located so as
to conceal or obscure any exits.

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Discharge of an exit
Exits should discharge directly to the outside or equivalent safe area. NFPA highlights
circumstances where alternatives such as areas of refuge and exiting through lobby areas can
be used.
Means of egress components
 Doors, stairs, ramps, and exit passageways are the most common means of egress
components.
 The code also permits fire escape, ladder, alternating tread devices, and slide escapes
in certain occupancies. Where safe exiting is not possible, the code also permits “area
of refuge” in specific cases.
Egress capacity
 Egress capacity for each means of egress component is based on clear width of the
component and the type of occupancy.
 Egress capacity for an exit route is determined by figuring egress capacity for each
egress component and determining the most restrictive component in the exit tour. In
general, the egress capacity feet factor for stairs is 0.3 inches per person and for ramps
and level components is 0.2 inches per person.
DOORS
 Every exit doorway shall open into an enclosed stairway or a horizontal exit of a
corridor or passageway providing continuous and protected means of egress.
 No exit doorway shall be less than 1000 mm in width except assembly buildings
where door width shall be not less than 2000 mm. Doorways shall be not less than
2000 mm in height.
 Exit doorways shall open outwards, that is, away from the room, but shall not obstruct
the travel along any exit. No door, when opened, shall reduce the required width of
stairway of landing to less than 900 mm. overhead or sliding doors shall not be
installed.
 Note- In the case of buildings where there is a central corridor, the doors of rooms
shall open inwards to permit smooth flow of traffic in the corridor.
 Exit door shall not open immediately upon a flight of stairs. A-landing equal to at
least the width of the door shall be provided in the stairway at each doorway. The
level of landing shall be the same as that of the floor, which it serves.
 Exit doorways shall be open able from the side, which they serve without the use of a
key.
 Mirrors shall not be placed in exit doors to avoid confusion regarding the direction of
exit.
EXTERNAL CORRIDORS
The minimum width of an exit access shall be 36 inches for new buildings and 28 inches for
existing. These minimums may be increased by individual occupancy chapter requirements.

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Limit displaying combustible wall hangings such as crafts and artwork in school on the
corridor walls. The corridor should not be used to store materials and equipment that will
restrict its use for safe exiting.
Stairs - dimensional criteria
 The minimum width of tread without nosing shall be 250 mm for internal staircase of
residential buildings. This shall be 300 mm for assembly, hotels, educational,
institutional, business and other buildings. The treads shall be constructed and
maintained in a manner to prevent slipping.
 Landings are required every 12 feet of stair height. Stairs that continue beyond the
level of exit discharge must be interrupted at the level of exit discharge by partitions
or other effective means.
 The variance in tread and riser dimensions should not exceed 3/16 of an inch for
adjacent treads or risers of 3/8 of an inch from the largest to smallest tread/riser.
 Handrails should be provided with stairs and shall not be more than 37 inches nor less
than 30 inches from the upper surface of the handrail to the surface of the tread, in
line with the face of the riser at the forward edge of the tread.
 New handrails on open sides of stairs must have intermediate rails or an ornamental
pattern through, which a sphere of 4-inches in diameter cannot pass.
 Any means of egress that are more than 30 inches above the floor or grade below
must be provided with guards to prevent falls over the open side.
 Width of staircases:
a. Residential buildings (dwellings): 1.0m
b. Residential hotel buildings: 1.5m
c. Assembly buildings like auditorium: 2.0m
d. Educational buildings up to 30m in height: 1.5m
e. Institutional buildings like hospitals: 2.0m
f. All other buildings: 1.5m
Ramps
 The code permits use of inclined ramps. A new ramp in a public occupancy must have
a clear width of 44 inches and typically will have a 1-in-12 slope for a 6-inch or
greater rise.
 Steeper but shorter ramps are permitted. Maximum single rise for a ramp is limited to
30 inches.
 The code also requires guards and handrails for ramps. Due to accessibility
considerations for the physically challenged, the ramp should be designed with proper
slope, width, and slip resistant surfaces.
SMOKE-PROOF ENCLOSURES
 A smoke-proof enclosure is a stair enclosure so designed that the movement into the
smoke-proof enclosure of products of combustion produced by a fire occurring in any
part of the building is limited.
 A smoke-proof enclosure using stair pressurization must be protected throughout by
an approved automatic sprinkler system.

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  Equipment and ductwork for stair pressurization must be enclosed in 2-hour
construction and any openings needed for maintenance and operation be protected by
self-closing 1.5 hour fire protection rated devices.
 The activation of the pressurized stair enclosure system must be initiated by a smoke
detector installed within 10 feet of the entrance to the smoke-proof enclosure. This
system also must be activated by the water flow signal from an approved automatic
sprinkler system.
 The stair pressurization system must be provided with standby power. This is to be
provided by an approved self-contained generator set to operate whenever there is a
loss of power. This standby generator also can provide power to emergency lighting
units in the stair shaft and vestibule.
Marking means of egress
 All exits and access ways must be marked by an approved sign readily visible from
any direction of exit access.
 Every sign must be so located and of such size, distinctive color, and design as to be
readily visible and must provide contrast with decorations, interior finish, or other
signs.
 Every sign must be suitably illuminated by a reliable light source. Externally and
internally illuminated signs must be visible in both normal and emergency lighting
mode.
Control Room
 There shall be a control room on the entrance floor of the building with
communication system (suitable public address system) to all floors and facilities for
receiving the message from different floors.
 Details of all floor plans along with the details of fire fighting equipment and
installation shall be maintained in the Control Room.
 The Control Room shall also have facility to detect the fire on any floor through
indicator boards connecting fire detection and alarm system on all floors.
 The staff in charge of the Control Room shall be responsible for the maintenance of
the various services and fire fighting equipment and installation. The Control Room
shall be manned round the clock by trained fire fighting staff.
GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR EGRESS DESIGN FOR AUDITORIUMS, CONCERT
HALLS, THEATRES, OTHER BUILDING TYPES
Residential Buildings (Group A)
Good Fire Safety Management in homes call for strict and constant observance of all the
common home fire safety rules for kitchen fire safety, gas fire safety, electrical fire safety etc;
 Every Residential occupancy, including residential homes and flats, should formulate
a suitable fire escape plan so that every occupant in the building can promptly and
safely evacuate the premises in the event of a fire or any other emergency. In the case
of Dormitories, Hostels, Hotels etc., the evacuation plans have to be made out with
extreme care as more number of occupants are involved;

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  The fire escape plans have to be practised periodically by the occupants in the form of
mock fire drills so that the evacuation of the occupants in the building can be carried
out promptly, smoothly and in an orderly manner avoiding panic and confusion which
can lead to accidents and injuries;
 It has to be ensured that the exits and stairways of the building are always kept clear
of all obstructions or hazardous materials;
 Where Residential and Non-Residential Occupancies co-exist, extreme care has to be
taken in the design and construction of the premises so as to ensure that all essential
fire and life safety requirements as per Codes are incorporated in the building;
 No dwelling unit of a Residential occupancy shall have its sole means of egress pass
through any part of non-Residential occupancy in the same building;
 Interior finishes, including floor finishes in Residential occupancies, shall be of
approved classes as per relevant Codes/ standards;
 Building Services, including lifts/escalators shall be of standard approved types as per
relevant Codes/Standards.
 Rooms containing A/C plants, high-pressure boilers, transformers etc, having fire and
explosion hazards, shall not be located directly under or adjacent to exits. Walls of
enclosure for such rooms shall have minimum 4 hrs. Fire resistance.
 Flammable liquids for household purposes shall be kept in tightly stopped or sealed
containers. Particular care has to be taken to avoid storage of low flash point
flammable liquids like petrol in residential accommodation.
 No stove or combustion heater shall be located directly under or immediately at the
foot of stairs or otherwise so located as to block escape.
 Kitchen exhaust ducts are hazardous since they convey hot and flammable gases and
vapours. All kitchen exhaust fans shall be fixed to an outside wall or to a duct of non-
combustible material, which leads directly to the outside.
 All outdoor antennae shall be properly grounded and protected from lightning.
 Doors leading to rooms in which flammable liquids are stored or used shall be posted
with a sign on each side of the door in 50mm high block letters stating - fire door-
Keep closed In addition, they must have the required fire resistance also.
Educational Buildings (Group-B)
 Educational occupancy is distinguished from Assembly occupancy in that in the
former the same occupants are regularly present, and they are subject to discipline and
control
 All educational buildings of permanent nature shall be of Type I construction having
external shell and load bearing elements of 4 hrs. Fire resistance rating, while internal
/ non-load bearing walls shall have 2 hrs. fire resistance;
 All educational buildings not of permanent nature, may be of Type II or Type III
construction as per IS 1642. All such semi-permanent buildings shall be restricted to
ground and one upper floor only, and the floor area not exceeding 1000 m2 on each
floor;
 Type IV construction, as well as temporary structures, such as tents or with thatched
construction, shall not be allowed for housing educational institutions;

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 Basement, if constructed, should not be used for classrooms, laboratories, libraries or
for assembly halls;
 Every classroom with a capacity of 45 persons or more should have minimum two
door exits;
 The occupant load of educational buildings or any individual story or section for
determining the exits required shall be not less than one person per 4m2 of net area;
 There shall be at least two exits available from every floor area; All internal
staircases, lift, lobbies and corridors should be adequately ventilated and illuminated;
 Emergency lighting in accordance with approved standards must be provided for all
interior stairs and corridors and normally occupied areas;
 NO exit doorway shall be less than 1m. The height of door shall not be less than 2m;
 The doors shall open inwardly wherever the doors lead to corridors or open on
landings leading to flight of stairs;
 Any building having area more than 500 m2 on each floor, and 15 m or more in
height, shall have minimum two staircases of enclosed type;
 Internal stairs shall be constructed of non-combustible materials throughout;
 The width of staircases shall not be less than 1.5 m for building up to a height of 30m;
 Educational buildings above 30 m in height are not permitted;
 Minimum width of treads for stairs shall not be less than 300 mm. The treads shall be
constructed and maintained properly so as to avoid slipping during use;
 Maximum height of riser shall not be more than 150 mm and number shall be limited
to 15 per flight;
 No living space, store or other fire risk shall open directly into the staircases
 The main staircase and external staircase shall be continuous from ground floor to the
terrace level;
 No combustible material (interior finish) shall be used for decoration/wall panelling in
the staircase;
 Floor indication boards shall be prominently indicated on the wall facing the
staircases near to the landing. It shall be of size not less than 0.5 x 0.5 m;
 All exit marking signs shall be prominently indicated showing the way to the escape
route, and the same shall be illuminated by electric light connected to
corridor/staircase circuits along with emergency lighting, which should be designed to
come on within one second of the failure of the normal lighting supply, and to remain
on continuous operation for a minimum duration of 1 hour and 30 minutes;
 If external stairs are provided, care has to be taken to ensure that no wall opening or
window opens on to or close to an external staircase;
 No combustible material of any kind shall be stored or used in any building or section
thereof;
 Bare minimum quantities of flammable materials such as chloroform, ethyl alcohol,
spirit, etc. shall be allowed to be handled or stored;
 Doors in fire resistant walls shall be so installed that these may normally be kept in
open position, but will close automatically when required;
 Corridor door openings in smoke barriers shall be not less than 1500 mm in width.
Provision shall also be made for double swing single/double leaf type doors;

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 Any room in which volatile flammable substances are used or stored, shall be
provided with a suitably designed exhaust ventilation system. Proper care shall be
taken in providing electrical installations in such rooms, which should conform to
approved standards;
 Ventilators should be provided near ceiling level for lighter than air vapours, and near
the floor for heavier than air vapours like LPG;
 Fire Protection and Life Safety requirements as stipulated in National Building Code
Part 4, latest version, as well as IS 14435 1997, fire Safety in Educational Institutions-
Code of Practice should be complied with for all Educational Buildings;
 Teachers and other staff of the Educational Institutions should be sensitised to their
responsibilities for the safety and well-being of the students. They and selected Senior
Students should also be trained in the use of first aid fire fighting equipment in case of
fire emergency;
 Cooking of food, where carried out in Schools, should be done at a safe place, in a
detached building, away from the main building where class rooms are located
 If gas or electricity is used for the kitchen, proper safety measures have to be
exercised in the handling of the connected equipment, and the ovens/burners should
be kept at an elevated surface compared to the cylinders;
 Educational Institutions having auditorium should have fire protection and means of
exit arrangements as required for similar capacity Assembly occupancies;
 Laboratories in the Educational Institutions shall comply with all the fire safety
measures as stipulated in relevant standards, like IS 4209-1987, code of Safety for
Chemical Laboratories;
 Computer Rooms, where provided in Educational Buildings should have the fire
protection arrangements as prescribed in IS-12456-1988, code of Practice for fire
protection of electronic data processing installations;
 Educational Buildings having height 15m or more should comply with fire protection
and life safety norms for high rise buildings as prescribed in NBC Part 4;
 Emergency Plan should be made by all Educational Institutions, and evacuation drills
should be organised at regular intervals, which should be not less than once a quarter;
 Along with the evacuation drills, it will be desirable to organise short duration special
training programmes on any safety subject, so that the students from their very young
age will be suitably trained in inculcating safety habits; Fire Prevention/Fire Safety
Measures in Health Care Facilities
 Potential fire and explosion hazards associated with medical gas piping systems shall
be taken into account in the design, installation, testing, operation and maintenance of
these systems;
 All stipulated safety precautions should be observed in the storage and handling of
various types of gas cylinders which are usually found in such occupancies;
 Similarly, all necessary precautions should be observed in the storage and handling of
bulk cryogenic liquid systems (generally liquid oxygen);
 Specific precautions are to be taken to protect oxygen cylinders, containers and
associated equipment from abnormal mechanical shock and heat;
 Full cylinders shall be stored/kept segregated from empty cylinders;

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  The floors of operation rooms, anaesthetising locations and such other
rooms/locations and contiguous areas where hazardous gases/vapours are likely to be
present should have conductive floors to equalise/dissipate possible static charges.
 A resistance not exceeding 50 mega ohms is generally sufficient to prevent
accumulation of dangerous electrical charges. Personnel entering such hazardous
areas shall wear shoes having soles and heels of conductive rubber;
 As a general guidance, the under mentioned anaesthetic agents are considered
flammable during conditions of clinical use: Cyclopropane, Ethylene, Ethyl Ether,
Divinyl Ether, Ethyl Chloride etc.
 The following anaesthetic agents are considered non-flammable during conditions of
clinical use: Chloroform, Nitrous Oxide, Halothane, Trichloroethylene,
Methoxyfluorane, Enfluorane;
 Wherever clinical procedures are performed like operation rooms, delivery rooms
etc., special mechanical ventilation arrangements are required. It will be desirable to
maintain slight positive pressure in such areas to prevent infiltration of contaminated
air into such sensitive areas;
 While plastic containers are preferred to glass containers to avoid breakage problems,
care has to be exercised in the choice of plastic containers in their compatibility with
the liquid to be contained;
 The relevant pollution control rules regarding the safe disposal of hospital wastes,
which may contain various hazardous materials, have to be scrupulously complied
with (Bio-medical Waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 1998 refers);
 It is essential that core personnel employed in hospital facilities like doctors, nurses,
aides, wards, attendants, etc., shall be indoctrinated in all aspects of fire prevention,
fire safety, evacuation procedures, etc. in case of emergencies. To ensure this, regular
instructional programmes and fire drills should be conducted and records maintained;
 However, it has to be remembered that life safety of all the patient occupants in health
care facilities cannot be adequately assured by evacuation procedures alone. It is,
therefore, necessary that the fire protection measures incorporated and maintained for
such occupancies should be of the highest standards so as to ensure maximum life
safety opportunities for the occupants.
Assembly Buildings (Auditoriums, Concert Halls, Theatres) (Group-D)
 Mixed Occupancies are predominantly life hazard occupancies;
 Places of assembly in buildings of other occupancy, shall be so located, separated or
protected as to avoid any undue danger to the occupants of the place of assembly from
a fire originating in the other occupancy or smoke there from;
 Canteens in auditoriums pose substantial fire and life safety hazards, and are not
recommended to be located in the basements. In any case, they must be sprinklered;
 All rooms or areas used for storage of any combustible materials or equipment, or for
painting, refurbishing, repair or similar purposes shall be effectively cut off from
assembly areas. They shall be located away from staircases. Besides installation of
sprinklers, it will be necessary for provision of fire barriers (fire resistant separating
walls) also to segregate the fire hazardous areas from Assembly areas;
 Rooms containing equipment’s subject to possible explosion shall be effectively cut
off from other parts of the building, and provided with adequate vents to the outside

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 air; The proscenium wall of every theatre using movable scenery or decorations shall
have exclusive of the proscenium opening, not more than two openings entering the
stage, each not to exceed 2m2 and fitted with self-closing fire resistant doors;
 The decoration of places of assembly shall be of non-flammable materials. Fabrics
and papers used for such purposes shall be treated with an effective flame retardant
material. Stage settings made of combustible materials shall likewise be treated with
fire retardant materials of Class 1 flame spread;
 Decoration materials and stage settings of combustible nature have been the cause of
several theatre fires, which have resulted in total losses;
 The curtain shall have an emergency closing device capable of causing the the curtain
to close without the use of power, and when so closed, it shall be reasonably tight
against the passage of smoke;
 The stage roof of every theatre shall have a ventilator or ventilators in or above it,
operable from the stage floor by hand, and also opening by fusible links or some other
approved automatic heat/smoke actuated device, to give a free opening equal to at
least one-eighth the area of the floor of the stage;
 The handling and use of gasoline, fuel oil and other flammable liquids shall not be
permitted. Underground Shopping centres and larger Shopping Malls/Centres.
 Department Stores and Super-markets contain different kinds of merchandise, which
together can constitute high fire load.
 Generally, these buildings may be multi-storeyed ones, with customer movement
patterns permitting both vertical and horizontal movements. Storied buildings have
open stairs and sometimes escalators also. Their peculiar design, layout and high fire
density, along with a large number of floating customer population as well as staff, all
in combination virtually make these premises highly vulnerable from fire and life
safety point of view;
 It follows from the above, as well as from the world-wide experience gained in the
past through major fires in Department stores, that a lot of careful thought and
planning have to be addressed in the design and construction of the buildings, and the
fire protection and means of exit arrangements required to be incorporated in such
buildings must also be of the highest standards. Stringent Code implementation is a
must in such occupancies;
 Mixed Occupancies of this nature are quite hazardous and quite a few fire incidents
had occurred in different cities / towns in India and abroad in such premises causing
fatalities, especially in big Departmental Stores. Hazardous areas shall be segregated.
ere are huge multi-storey
(high-rise) complexes such as Textile Market, where bulk quantities of textile
materials are stored, along with retail outlets also. The high fire hazard potential in
such complexes necessarily call for high standards of fire protection also.
 In the case of Underground Shopping Complexes, the hazards are much more
multifarious with more serious evacuation problems. Therefore, such complexes also
shall scrupulously comply with all the fire and life safety protection requirements as
stipulated in the Codes.
 Apart from covered roof mercantile operations, mercantile units of function in
basements and sub basements levels also in our cities. These below grade shop

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 complexes are quite fire hazardous and warrant due fire protection measures, like
mandatory sprinkler protection.
 Apart from what has already been stated, all Building Codes should address the
problems relating to covered mall shopping centres also, particularly the life safety
concerns.
 Occupancies where goods of a highly hazardous nature are predominant shall be
considered under Hazardous buildings.
Industrial Buildings (Group G)
 Subdivisions: Buildings under this Group are subdivided according to hazard
categories:
 Subdivision G-1: Buildings used for low hazard industries in which the contents are
of low combustibility;
 Subdivision G-2: Buildings used for moderate hazard industries in which there are
possibilities of fires which may burn with moderate rapidity, and may give off large
volumes of smoke;
 Subdivision G-3: Buildings used for housing high hazard industries, which are liable
to give rise to fires which will burn with extreme rapidity, and from which poisonous
fumes or explosions are also likely.
 Guidance with regard to the classification of Industrial Buildings into low, moderate
and high hazard classes and the types of industrial buildings coming under this
subdivisions can be obtained from Annex-B to Part 4, NBC;
 In case of mixed occupancies of G-1, G-2, and G-3 classes of industries in one
building, where no partition walls are provided between the various classes of
occupancies, the entire building will have to be considered as a G-3 premises, and the
fire protection requirements which are commensurate with high hazard class industry
will have to be provided.
 General Global statistics bear out the fact that fires and explosions in industrial and
manufacturing facilities, which come under this Group of Occupancies, account for
the major portion of direct material losses as well as indirect losses (such as
production losses) in a country. In the matter of loss of lives also this Occupancy
Group is one among the front ranking Groups like Assembly. The large number of
such occupancies which abound in urban and rural areas in the country, as well as the
innumerable types of hazardous materials handled and processed in these promises,
and human factors are generally responsible for such heavy losses;
 The hazards involved in industrial occupancies vary greatly and, therefore, an
integrated approach has to be followed in the matter of provision of adequate fire and
life safety requirements for such premises;
 Factors to be considered for evaluation of life safety risks are materials used for
interior finish, rate of fire spread, burn rate, and evaluation of toxic fumes, potential
ignition sources, fire load and smoke generation. Property protection follows
employees evacuation;
 Industrial occupancies which come under the purview of Industrial legislation of the
Central / State Government, for starting, siting, operating etc. of the industry, have to
comply with the relevant provisions of the same, apart from complying with the
requirements specified in relevant Parts of NBC as well as local Codes/Byelaws/

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 Regulations regarding design, and construction of the buildings and for incorporation
of the fire and life safety requirements in the buildings;
 Hazardous, pollution-prone etc. industries, as designated by the authorised legislation,
are required to formulate and submit their On-site and Off-site Emergency Plans to
the concerned authorities on specified time schedules. The details of these
requirements, including the details of information to be furnished on various
documents/forms (to be submitted to appropriate authorities) like Safety Report,
Safety Data Sheet, On-site Emergency Plan, Off-site Emergency Plan etc., are given
in various Schedules under the Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous
Chemicals Rules 1989, issued by Govt. of India.
 Whenever flammable vapours/ gases are present within their flammable limits, the
slightest spark created by the operation of electrical equipment like switches or spark
producing tools (friction sparks) can give rise to fire or explosion. While safety from
electrical sparks can be achieved by safe electrical equipment/apparatus as already
mentioned, spark from tools can be avoided by use of non-sparking tools.
 If Petroleum liquids are stored or handled at temperatures at or above their flash point,
they should be treated with extreme caution (as for class-1 flammable liquids).
Hazardous area normally covers an area extending up to 15m from equipment
handling flammable/combustible liquids, or 30m from equipment handling flammable
gases
General guidelines for egress design for Auditoriums, concert halls, theatres, other
building types
Egress systems
A continuous and unobstructed path of travel from any point in a building or structure to a
public way that consists of the following three separate and distinct parts:
 Exit access: The travel path or area that leads from where a person is located to the
entrance to an exit.
 Exit: That portion of a means of egress that is separated by construction or equipment
from other areas of the building. Exit components include walls, floor, doors, or other
means that provide the protected path necessary for the occupants to proceed with
reasonable safety to the exterior of the building. An exit may comprise vertical or
horizontal means of travel such as doorways, stairways, ramps, corridors, and
passageways. Types of permissible exits are doors leading directly outside or through
a protected passageway to the outside, smoke-proof towers, interior and outside stairs,
ramps, and escalators in existing buildings. Elevators are not accepted as exits.
 Exit discharge: That portion of a means of egress between the end of the exit and a
public way or other safe place.
Arrangement of means of egress
Location
At least two exits should be provided for all areas. These exits must be remotely located from
each other and arranged and constructed to minimize the possibility that more than one may
be blocked by any one fire or other emergency condition. For all new construction, the

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“diagonal” rule requires exits to be separated by at least half of the diagonal distance of the
area served.
Number of means of egress
The minimum number of exits from any balcony, mezzanine, or other area must be two. The
minimum number of exits must be increased as follows:
 Occupant load of more than 49 but fewer than 500
 Occupant load of more than 500 but fewer than 1,000
 Occupant load of more than 1,000
 Exceptions are granted for existing buildings as provided by the specific occupancy
sections of various Building or Life Safety codes.
The minimum occupant load or number of people expected in a building at any time is
determined by dividing the gross or net floor area of a specific portion of the building by a
factor projected for each person. The factor projected for each person and the choice of gross
or net floor area varies with the type of occupancy. Specific requirements also exist for fixed
seating arrangements. These values are minimums and, if the occupancy level will be higher,
then additional existing capacity must be provided. In addition, the exit capacity provided
must meet the highest occupancy level expected and should not be designed to an average.
Access to an exit (Maximum Travel Distance)
The codes specify the travel distance allowed to reach an exit. This is an extremely important
feature since a person could be exposed to fire or smoke conditions during the time it takes to
reach an exit. A general rule is the maximum travel distance to at least one exit shall not
exceed 150 feet in buildings not sprinklered or exceed 200 feet in buildings protected
throughout by an approved supervised sprinkler system. Depending on the occupancy,
additional limitations on dead-end corridors and common pathways are required in the travel
distances to an exit.
Impediments to egress
In no case shall access to an exit be through kitchens, storerooms, restrooms, workrooms,
closets, bedrooms, or similar spaces, and exit access doors leading to exits must be designed
and arranged to be clearly recognizable. Hangings or draperies should not be placed over exit
doors or otherwise located so as to conceal or obscure any exits.
Discharge of an exit
Exits should discharge directly to the outside or equivalent safe area. NFPA highlights
circumstances where alternatives such as areas of refuge and exiting through lobby areas can
be used.
Means of egress components
Doors, stairs, ramps, and exit passageways are the most common means of egress
components. The code also permits fire escape, ladder, alternating tread devices, and slide
escapes in certain occupancies. Where safe exiting is not possible, the code also permits “area
of refuge” in specific cases.

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Egress capacity
Egress capacity for each means of egress component is based on clear width of the
component and the type of occupancy. Egress capacity for an exit route is determined by
figuring egress capacity for each egress component and determining the most restrictive
component in the exit tour. In general, the egress capacity feet factor for stairs is 0.3 inches
per person and for ramps and level components is 0.2 inches per person.
Doors
In determining the egress width for a doorway for purposes of calculating capacity, only the
clear width of the doorway when the door is in the full open position should be measured.
Clear width is the unobstructed width of the door opening.
No door opening in the means of egress should be less than 32 inches clear width opening.
This width will allow passage of wheelchairs. For rooms with less than 70 square feet, the
width may be reduced to 28 inches provided that wheelchair use is not allowed in the room.
For existing structures, the minimum width is 28 inches. The maximum door leaf width is 48
inches to facilitate use in an emergency.
External Corridors
The minimum width of an exit access shall be 36 inches for new buildings and 28 inches for
existing. These minimums may be increased by individual occupancy chapter requirements.
Limit displaying combustible wall hangings such as crafts and artwork in school on the
corridor walls. The corridor should not be used to store materials and equipment that will
restrict its use for safe exiting.
Stairs - dimensional criteria
 Stairs must be of sufficient width so two persons can descend side by side to maintain
a reasonable rate of evacuation. Minimum width clear of all obstructions must be 44
inches.
 Stair treads must be wide enough to give good footing. NFPA 101 specifies a
minimum 11-inch tread and a maximum 78-inch riser for new stairs. Stair treads must
be uniformly slip resistant and must be free of projections or lips that could trip stair
users.
 Landings are required every 12 feet of stair height. Stairs that continue beyond the
level of exit discharge must be interrupted at the level of exit discharge by partitions
or other effective means.
 The variance in tread and riser dimensions should not exceed 3/16 of an inch for
adjacent treads or risers of 3/8 of an inch from the largest to smallest tread/riser.
 Handrails should be provided with stairs and shall not be more than 37 inches nor less
than 30 inches from the upper surface of the handrail to the surface of the tread, in
line with the face of the riser at the forward edge of the tread.
 New handrails on open sides of stairs must have intermediate rails or an ornamental
pattern through, which a sphere of 4-inches in diameter cannot pass.
 Any means of egress that are more than 30 inches above the floor or grade below
must be provided with guards to prevent falls over the open side.

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  Guards must be no less than 42 inches high and new railings should prevent a 4 - inch
sphere from passing through.
Ramps
 The code permits use of inclined ramps. A new ramp in a public occupancy must have
a clear width of 44 inches and typically will have a 1-in-12 slope for a 6-inch or
greater rise.
 Steeper but shorter ramps are permitted. Maximum single rise for a ramp is limited to
30 inches.
 The code also requires guards and handrails for ramps. Due to accessibility
considerations for the physically challenged, the ramp should be designed with proper
slope, width, and slip resistant surfaces.
Window Egress
 Although the height of a window above the floor surface can pose a challenge for
emergency escape, there is no set maximum sill height for bedroom, windows in the
NBC.
 Therefore, it is possible to install a window that satisfies the requirements, but defeats
the intent when the sill is so high that it cannot be reached for escape purposes.
 It is recommended that the sills of windows intended for use as emergency escape be
not higher than 1.5 m (5 ft.) above the floor.
 When it is unavoidable to have a sill height higher than 1.5 m, access to the window
should be improved by some means, such as built-in furniture installed below the
window.
ACCESSIBILITY FOR DISABLED (NBC GUIDELINES)
The specified facilities for the buildings for physically handicapped persons shall be as
follows:
1. Approach to plinth level
2. Corridor connecting the entrance/exit for the handicapped.
3. Stair-ways
4. Lift
Approach to plinth level: Every building should have at least one entrance accessible to the
handicapped and shall be indicated by proper signage. This entrance shall be approached
through a ramp together with the stepped entry.
Ramped Approach: Ramp shall be finished with non-slip material to enter the building.
Minimum width of ramp shall be 1800 mm. with maximum gradient 1:12, length of ramp
shall not exceed 9.0 meter having 800 mm high hand rail on both sides extending 300 mm.
beyond top and bottom of the ramp. Minimum gap from the adjacent wall to the hand rail
shall be 50 mm.
Stepped Approach: For stepped approach size of tread shall not be less than 300 mm. and
maximum riser shall be 150 mm. Provision of 800 mm. high hand rail on both sides of the
stepped approach similar to the ramped approach.

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Exit/Entrance Door: Minimum clear opening of the entrance door shall be 900 mm. and it
shall not be provided with a step that obstructs the passage of a wheel chair user. Threshold
shall not be raised more than 12 mm.
Entrance Landing: Entrance landing shall be provided adjacent to ramp with the minimum
dimension 1800 mm x 2000 mm. The entrance landing that adjoin the top end of a slope shall
be provided with floor materials to attract the attention of visually impaired persons (limited
to coloured floor material whose colour and brightness is conspicuously different from that of
the surrounding floor material or the material that emit different sound to guide visually
impaired persons hereinafter referred to as “guiding floor material”.
Corridor connecting the entrance/exit for the handicapped:
The corridor connecting the entrance/exit for handicapped leading directly outdoors to a place
where information concerning the overall use of the specified building can be provided to
visually impaired persons either by a person or by signs, shall be provided as follows:
a) ‘Guiding floor materials’ shall be provided or devices that emit sound to guide
visually impaired persons.
b) The minimum width shall be 1500 mm.
c) In case there is a difference of level slope ways shall be provided with a slope of 1:12.
d) Hand rails shall be provided for ramps/slope ways.
Stair-ways: One of the stair-ways near the entrance/exit for the handicapped shall have the
following provisions:
a) The minimum width shall be 1350 mm.
b) Height of the riser shall not be more than 150 mm and width of the tread 300 mm.
The steps shall not have abrupt (square) nosing.
c) Maximum number of risers on a flight shall be limited to 12.
d) Hand rails shall be provided on both sides and shall extend 300 mm. on the top and
bottom of each flight of steps.
Lifts: Wherever lift is required as per bye-laws, provision of at least one lift shall be made for
the wheel chair user with the following cage dimensions of lift recommended for passenger
lift of 13 person’s capacity by Bureau of Indian Standards.
Clear internal depth: 1100 mm.
Clear internal width: 2000 mm.
Entrance door width: 900 mm.
a) A hand rail not less than 600 mm. long at 1000 mm. above floor level shall be fixed
adjacent to the control panel.
b) The lift lobby shall be of an inside measurement of 1800 mm x 1800 mm. or more.
c) The time of an automatically closing door should be minimum 5 seconds and the
closing speed should not exceed 0.25 Meter/Sec.
d) The interior of the cage shall be provided with a device that audibly indicates the floor
cage has reached and indicates that the door of the cage for entrance/exit is either
open or closed.

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FIRE DETECTION AND FIRE FIGHTING
Heat smoke detectors
 This system is concerned with the detection of fire in an area and giving alarming
alert to take further action.
 The system generally consists of sensor, alarm and an alerting circuit.
 The main function is to rapidly extinguish the fire which may be due to short circuit
or other faults in the equipment.
 The types of sensors used in purely based on the application.
 It consists of a small chamber with a battery connected to two wires. The wires are
left separated.
 To make electricity flow from one wire to the other, gap must be closed.
 The chamber contains a radioactive isotope.
 The radioactive isotope charges the air in the gap makes the electric current to flow.
 A current detector detects the current flow and normally the alarm will be quiet.
 If there is a smoke the charged ions in the air gap gets absorbed by the smoke and the
current flow gets reduced.
 When the current flow stops the alarm gets operated.

Shows the ionization smoke detector

Photo electric smoke detector:

 The photo electric smoke detector consists of a light source and receiver.
 In normal conditions the light is not received by the sensor.
 When there is high concentration of smoke in the air the smoke particles interrupt the
light beam and act like mirrors, reflecting the light so that the light is received by the
sensor and it triggers the alarm.

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 Photo electric smoke detector

Fire Lift
Following details shall apply for a fire lift in addition to above requirements:
a) To enable fire service personnel to reach the upper floors with the minimum delay,
one or more of the lifts shall be so designed so as to be available for the exclusive use
of the fireman in an emergency and be directly accessible to every dwelling/lettable
floor space on each floor.
b) The lift shall have a floor area of not less than 1.4 sq.mt. It shall have a loading
capacity of not less than 545 kg. (8 persons lift) with automatic closing doors.
c) The electric supply shall be on a separate service from electric supply mains in a
building and the cables run in a route safe from fire that is within a lift shaft. Lights
and fans in the elevator having wooden panelling or sheet steel construction shall be
operated on 24-volt supply.

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 Fire Lift

d) In case of failure of normal electric supply, it shall automatically switch over to the
alternate supply. For apartment houses, this changeover of supply could be done
through manually operated changeover switch. Alternatively, the lift should be so
wired that in case of power failure, it comes down at the ground level and comes to
stand still with door open.
e) The operation of a fire lift shall by a single toggle of two-button switch situated in a
glass-fronted box adjacent to the lift at the entrance level. When the switch is on
landing; call points will become inoperative and the lift will be on car control only or
on a priority control device. When the switch is off, the lift will return to normal
working. This lift can be used by the occupants in normal times.
f) The words 'F1RE LIFT' shall be conspicuously displayed in fluorescent paint on the
lift landing doors at each floor level.
g) The speed of the fire lift shall be such that it can reach to the top floor from ground
level within one minute.
FIRE FIGHTING DESIGN PRINCIPLES & NATIONAL BUILDING CODE
PLANNING CONSIDERATION IN BUILDINGS
As a major development, BIS has published NBC (Part 4) Fire Protection which includes
comprehensive recommendation of minimum standards of fire protection. It specifies the
demarcation of fire zones, restrictions on construction of buildings in each fire zone,
classification of buildings based on occupancy, types of building construction according to
fire resistance of the structural and non-structural components and other restrictions and
requirements necessary to minimize danger to life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic before
the building can be evacuated. The Code recognizes that safety of life is more than a matter
of means of exits and accordingly deals with various matters which are considered essential
to the safety of life. Additional Fire Protection Requirements for High Rise Buildings – 15
Metre in height or above In addition to the general provisions given in this part, the Authority

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may insist on suitable protection measures should be provided in a building 15 m in height or
above.
Construction
All materials of constructions in load bearing elements, stairways and corridors and facades
shall be non-combustible. LIFTS Walls of lift enclosures shall have a fire rating of 2 h; lifts
shafts shall have a vent at the top of area not less than 0.2 sq.m.
Fire Lifts
To enable fire services personnel to reach the upper floors with the minimum delay, one fire
lift per 1200 sq.m of floor area shall be provided and shall be available for the exclusive use
of the firemen in an emergency.
Basements
Each basement shall be separately ventilated. Vents with cross-sectional area (aggregate) not
less than 2.5 percent of the floor area spread evenly round the perimeter of the basement shall
be provided in the form of grills, or breakable stall board lights or pavement lights or by way
of shafts. Mechanical extractors shall be designed to permit 30 air changes per hour in case of
fire or distress call. However, for normal operation, air changes schedule shall be as given in
IS 1642. All floors shall be compartmented with area not exceeding 750sq.m by a separation
wall with 2 h fire rating, for floors with sprinklers the area may be increased by 50 percent.
Service Ducts/Shafts
Service ducts and shafts shall be enclosed by walls of 2 h and doors of 1 h, fire rating. All
such ducts/shafts shall be properly sealed and fire stopped at all floor levels.
REFUGE AREA Provisions contained in IS 1644 shall apply for all buildings except multi-
family dwellings, refuge area of not less than 15sq.m shall be provided on the external walls.
Electrical Services
The electric distribution cables/wiring shall be laid in a separate duct. The duct shall be
sealed at every floor with non-combustible materials having the same fire resistance as that of
the duct. Low and medium voltage wiring running in shaft and in false ceiling shall run in
separate conduits.
Illumination of Means of Exit
Staircase and corridor lights shall conform to the requirements of IS 1644. A stand-by
generator shall be installed to supply power to staircase and corridor lighting circuits, fire
lifts, the stand-by fire pump, pressurization fans and blowers, smoke extraction and damper
systems in case of failure of normal electric supply. TRANSFORMERS It shall conform to
the requirements of IS 1646.
Air-Conditioning
The ducting shall be constructed of substantial gauge metal in accordance with good practice
IS 9583.
Provision of first-aid fire fighting appliances

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The first-aid fire fighting equipment shall be provided on all floors, including basements, lift
rooms, etc., in accordance with relevant Indian Standards in consultation with the Authority.
FIRE ALARM SYSTEM All buildings with heights of 15 m or above shall be equipped with
manually operated electrical fire alarm (MOEFA) system and automatic fire alarm system in
accordance with IS 2189.
Lightning protection of buildings
The lightning protection for buildings shall be provided as given in Part 8 Building services,
Section 2 Electrical installations of NBC. FIRE CONTROL ROOM For all buildings 15 m in
height or above and apartment buildings with a height of 30 m and above, there shall be a
control room on the entrance floor of the building with communication system (suitable
public address system) to aid floors and facilities for receiving the message from different
floors.
Compartmentation
The building shall be suitably compartmentalized so that fire/smoke remain confined to the
area where fire incident has occurred and does not spread to the remaining part of the
building.
Materials for interior decoration/furnishing
The use of materials which are combustible in nature and may spread toxic fume/gases
should not be used for interior decoration/furnishing, etc. In the formulation of Indian
standards, the approach adopted is as follows:
1)Fire Prevention - Covering aspects of fire prevention pertaining to planning, design and
construction of buildings on passive fire protection measures, also describing the various
types of building materials and their fire rating.
2)Life Safety - Covering life safety provisions in the event of fire and similar emergencies,
also addressing construction and occupancy features that are necessary to minimize danger to
life from fire, smoke, fumes or panic.
3) Fire Protection - Covering the significant appurtenances and their related components and
guidelines for selecting the correct type of equipment and installation meant for fire
protection of the building, depending upon the classification and type of the building.

SPRINKLER SYSTEMS
FIRE FIGHTING SYSTEMS
A fire fighting system is probably the most important of the building services, as its aim is to
protect human life and property.
It consists of three basic parts:
 A large store of water in tanks, either underground or on top of the building, called
fire storage tanks

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 A specialised pumping system,
 A large network of pipes ending in either hydrants or sprinklers (nearly all buildings
require both of these systems)

 A fire hydrant is a vertical steel pipe with an outlet, close to which two fire hoses are
stored (A fire hydrant is called a standpipe in America). During a fire, fire-fighters
will go to the outlet, break open the hoses, attach one to the outlet, and manually open
it so that water rushes out of the nozzle of the hose.
 The quantity and speed of the water is so great that it can knock over the fire-fighter
holding the hose if he is not standing in the correct way.
 As soon as the fire fighter opens the hydrant, water will gush out, and sensors will
detect a drop in pressure in the system. This drop in pressure will trigger the fire
pumps to turn on and start pumping water at a tremendous flow rate.
 A sprinkler is a nozzle attached to a network of pipes, and installed just below the
ceiling of a room. Every sprinkler has a small glass bulb with a liquid in it. This bulb
normally blocks the flow of water.
 In a fire, the liquid in the bulb will become hot. It will then expand, and shatter the
glass bulb, removing the obstacle and causing water to spray from the sprinkler. The

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 main difference between a hydrant and a sprinkler is that a sprinkler will come on
automatically in a fire.
 A fire hydrant has to be operated manually by trained fire-fighters - it cannot be
operated by laymen.
 A sprinkler will usually be activated very quickly in a fire - possibly before the fire
station has been informed of the fire - and therefore is very effective at putting out a
fire in the early stages, before it grows into a large fire. For this reason, a sprinkler
system is considered very well at putting out fires before they spread and become
unmanageable.
 General sprinklers are devices for a distributing water upon a fire in sufficient
quantity to extinguish it completely or to prevent its spread, by keeping the fire under
control, by the water discharged from the sprinklers.
 The water for fire fighting is fed to the sprinklers through a system piping, normally
suspended from the ceiling, with the sprinklers installed at intervals along the pipes.
 The orifice of the sprinkler head, incorporating the fusible link or fusible bulb of the
automatic sprinkler, is normally kept closed, which is thrown open on the actuation of
the temperature sensitive fusible link or fusible bulb.
FIRE STORAGE TANKS
 The amount of water in the fire storage tanks is determined by the hazard level of the
project under consideration.
 Most building codes have at least three levels, namely, Light Hazard (such as schools,
residential buildings and offices), Ordinary Hazard (such as most factories and
warehouses), and High Hazard (places which store or use flammable materials like
foam factories, aircraft hangars, paint factories, fireworks factories).
 The relevant building code lists which type of structure falls in each category. The
quantity of water to be stored is usually given in hours of pumping capacity.
 In system with a capacity of one hour, the tanks are made large enough to supply the
fire with water for a period of one hour when the fire pumps are switched on. For
example, building codes may require light hazard systems to have one hour’s capacity
and high hazard 3 or 4 hours capacity.
 The water is usually stored in concrete underground tanks. It is essential to ensure that
this store of water always remains full, so it must have no outlets apart from the ones
that lead to the fire pumps.
 These tanks are separate from the tanks used to supply water to occupants, which are
usually called domestic water tanks. Designers will also try and ensure that the water
in the fire tanks does not get stagnant and develop algae, which could clog the pipes
and pumps, rendering the system useless in a fire.
FIRE PUMPING SYSTEM
 Fire pumps are usually housed in a pump room very close to the fire tanks. The key
thing is that the pumps should be located at a level just below the bottom of the fire
tank, so that all the water in the tanks can flow into the pumps by gravity.
 Like all important systems, there must be backup pumps in case the main pump fails.
There is a main pump that is electric, a backup pump that is electric, and a second
backup pump that is diesel-powered, in case the electricity fails, which is common.

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 Each of these pumps is capable of pumping the required amount of water individually
- they are identical in capacity.
 There is also a fourth type of pump called a jockey pump. This is a small pump
attached to the system that continually switches on to maintain the correct pressure in
the distribution systems, which is normally 7 Kg/cm2 or 100 psi. If there is a small
leakage somewhere in the system, the jockey pump will switch on to compensate for
it. Each jockey pump will also have a backup.
 The pumps are controlled by pressure sensors. When a fire fighter opens a hydrant, or
when a sprinkler comes on, water gushes out of the system and the pressure drops.
 The pressure sensors will detect this drop and switch the fire pumps on. But the only
way to switch off a fire pump is for a fire fighter to do this manually in the pump
room. This is an international code of practice that is designed to avoid the pumps
switching off due to any malfunction in the control system.
The capacity of the pumps is decided by considering a number of factors, some of which are:
 The area covered by hydrants / standpipes and sprinklers
 The number of hydrants and sprinklers
 The assumed area of operation of the sprinklers
 The type and layout of the building
THE DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM
 The distribution system consists of steel or galvanised steel pipes that are painted red.
These can be welded together to make secure joints, or attached with special clamps.
 When running underground, they are wrapped with a special coating that prevents
corrosion and protects the pipe.
There are basically two types of distribution systems
Automatic Wet systems are networks of pipes filled with water connected to the pumps and
storage tanks, as described so far.
 Automatic Dry systems are networks of pipes filled with pressurized air instead of
water. When a fire fighter opens a hydrant, the pressurized air will first rush out.
 The pressure sensors in the pump room will detect a drop in pressure, and start the
water pumps, which will pump water to the system, reaching the hydrant that the fire
fighter is holding after a gap of some seconds.
 This is done wherever there is a risk of the fire pipes freezing if filled with water,
which would make them useless in a fire.
 Some building codes also allow manual distribution systems that are not connected to
fire pumps and fire tanks. These systems have an inlet for fire engines to pump water
into the system.
 Once the fire engines are pumping water into the distribution system, fire fighters can
then open hydrants at the right locations and start to direct water to the fire. In high-
rise buildings it is mandatory that each staircase have a wet riser, a vertical fire
fighting pipe with a hydrant at every floor.

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  It is important that the distribution system be designed with a ring main, a primary
loop that is connected to the pumps so that there are two routes for water to flow in
case one side gets blocked.
 In more complex and dangerous installations, high and medium velocity water spray
systems and foam systems (for hazardous chemicals) are used. The foam acts like an
insulating blanket over the top of a burning liquid, cutting off its oxygen.
 Special areas such as server rooms, the contents of which would be damaged by
water, use gas suppression systems. In these an inert gas is pumped into the room to
cut off the oxygen supply of the fire.
When you design a fire fighting system, remember the following:
Underground tanks:
 Water must flow from the municipal supply first to the fire fighting tanks and then to
the domestic water tanks. This is to prevent stagnation in the water.
 The overflow from the fire fighting to the domestic tanks must be at the top, so that
the fire fighting tanks remain full at all times.
 Normally, the fire fighting water should be segregated into two tanks, so that if one is
cleaned there is some water in the other tank should a fire occur.
 It is also possible to have a system in which the fire fighting and the domestic water
are in a common tank. In this case, the outlets to the fire pumps are located at the
bottom of the tank and the outlets to the domestic pumps must be located at a
sufficient height from the tank floor to ensure that the full quantity of water required
for fire fighting purposes is never drained away by the domestic pumps.
 The connection between the two tanks is through the suction header, a large diameter
pipe that connects the all the fire pumps in the pump room. Therefore there is no need
to provide any sleeve in the common wall between the two fire fighting tanks.
 The connection from each tank to the suction header should be placed in a sump; if
the connection is placed say 300mm above the tank bottom without a sump, then a
300mm high pool of water will remain in the tank, meaning that the entire volume of
the tank water will not be useable, to which the Fire Officer will object.
 Ideally the bottom of the fire fighting pump room should be about 1m below the
bottom of the tank. This arrangement ensures positive suction for the pumps, meaning
that they will always have some water in them.
 All pump rooms should without fail have an arrangement for floor drainage; pumps
always leak. The best way to do this is to slope the floor towards a sump, and install a
de-watering pump if the water cannot flow out by gravity.
 In cases where there is an extreme shortage of space, one may use submersible pumps
for fire fighting. This will eliminate the need for a fire fighting pump room.
 Create a special shaft for wet risers next to each staircase. About 800 x 1500 mm
should suffice. It is better to provide this on the main landing rather than the mid
landing, as the hoses will reach further onto the floor.
 Automatic sprinkler systems are quite effective for ensuring life safety, since they
give early warning of the existence of fire and simultaneously start application of
water on to the fire which will help control and extinguishment of the fire.

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Dry Risers
 Dry Riser Systems are installed in buildings for fire fighting purposes by trained
personnel and which are normally dry and are capable of being charged with water by
pumping from Fire Service Appliances
 Dry Riser Systems are installed complete with an inlet breeching connector at Ground
Floor or at Fire Service Access Level and with Landing Valves at specified points on
each floor
 Dry Riser Systems are installed up to 50m above the Fire Service Access Level
 Wet Riser Systems are installed in a buildings for fire fighting purposes by trained
personnel and which are permanently charged with water from a pumped source
 Wet Riser Systems are installed complete with Landing Valves at specified points on
each floor
 Wet Riser Systems are installed up to and above 50m subject to the system being
designed to provide adequate flow and pressure at the upper floors
Dry Riser System
Dry fire main water supply pipe installed in a building for fire-fighting purposes, fitted with
inlet connections at fire service access level and landing valves at specified points, which is
normally dry but is capable of being charged with water usually by pumping from fire and
rescue service appliances.
Wet Risers
Wet fire main water supply pipe installed in a building for fire-fighting purposes and
permanently charged with water from a pressurized supply, and fitted with landing valves at
specified points.
Where fire mains are installed and there are no floors higher than 50 m above fire service
access level, wet or dry fire mains may be installed.
Where there are floors higher than 50 m above fire service access level, wet fire mains should
be installed owing to the pressures required to provide adequate fire-fighting water supplies
at the landing valves at upper floors and also to ensure that water is immediately available at
all floor levels.

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 Dry Riser

Wet Riser

SPRINKLER SYSTEM
 Each sprinkler head is made up of steel cage fitted with a water deflector. A quartzoid
bulb, which contains a highly expansible liquid, is retained by the cage.
 The upper end of the bulb presses against a valve assembly which incorporates a soft
metal seal. Refer to the diagram below.
 When quartzoid bulbs are manufactured, a small gas space is left inside the bulb so
that, if the bulb is subjected to heat, the liquid expands and the gas space diminishes.
 This will generate pressure inside the bulb and the bulb will shatter once a
predetermined temperature is reached.

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 Once the bulb shatters the valve assembly falls permitting water to be discharged
from the head which strikes the deflector plate and sprays over a considerable area.
 Generally the operating temperature range of quartzoid bulbs is 68 °C to 93 °C but the
upper limit of temperature can be increased. Quartzoid bulbs are manufactured in
different colours which indicate the temperature rating of the bulb.

Sprinkler head for sprinkler system

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FIRE EXTINGUISHERS & CABINETS
On the basis of the type of fuel, fires are classified into the following
Class A: SOLIDS such as paper, wood, plastic etc.
Class B: FLAMMABLE LIQUIDS such as paraffin, petrol, oil etc.
Class C: FLAMMABLE GASES such as propane, butane, methane etc.
Class D: METALS such as aluminium, magnesium, titanium etc.
Class F: Cooking OIL & FAT etc.

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Types of Extinguishers:
(a) Portable fire extinguishers can be divided into 5 categories according to the extinguishing
agent they contain:
1. Water type extinguishers;
2. Foam extinguishers;
3. Dry powder extinguishers;
4. CO2 extinguishers; and
5. Halon / Halon alternative type extinguishers.
Water type extinguishers
Construction
 These extinguishers are identical in appearance and construction to SODA ACID type
of extinguishers.
 The only exception is that instead of acid phial these extinguishers are provided
withC02 cartridge which is screwed to the cap of the extinguisher.
 The C02 cartridge has a sealing disc. The plunger has a piercing type nail attached to
it in such a way that it will puncture the sealing disc of CO2, cartridge when pushed
down.
There are two types of this extinguishers based on their position for operation.
Upright type: These are provided with a dip pipe (siphon tube) attached to the oudet point
with or without a discharge hose pipe.
Invertible type: There is no dip pipe in this type of extinguishers and no discharge pipe is
provided
Types:
Water (gas cartridge) type extinguisher:
 In this pressure is released from a cartridge which is stored inside the body of the
extinguisher. The cartridge is pressurised with CO2 gas (to a pressure of approx. 35
bars). On puncturing the cartridge, by striking the knob on the top, the gas is released,
and on coming out of the cartridge, it expels the water from the body of the
extinguisher. The expelled water comes out through the nozzle of the extinguisher in
the form of a small jet, which can be projected on to the fire.
 The liquid capacity of the extinguisher, when filled to the specified level, is 9 litres.
 The gas cartridge is screwed on to a holder which is fitted on to the cap of the
extinguisher. The maximum size of the gas cartridge is 60 g for a 9 litre extinguisher.
 On operation, the water jet should give an effective throw of not less than 6m for a
minimum period of 60 sec., and at least 95 % of water in the extinguisher should be
discharged.
Water (Stored Pressure) Extinguisher:
1. The extinguisher is filled with water and dry air pressurized up to 10 bars. The air can
be supplied by compressed air cylinders or by certain type of pump.

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 2. Operation is performed by withdrawing the safety pin, depressing the valve lever and
directing the water jet by means of the hose.
3. As this type of extinguisher is permanently pressurised, it can only be opened for
inspection after discharged.
4. The normal capacity of this extinguisher is also 9 litres.

Water type extinguishers

Dry Chemical Powder Extinguisher (Gas Cartridge Type)

The extinguisher is cylindrical in shape, made of solid drawn steel cylinder.
 It has a removable internal shell having gas pores and is protected with thin rubber
rings and rubber washer at its neck.
 The extinguisher is fitted with a siphon tube connected to the body with a small length
of high pressure flexible hose terminating into a squeeze grip type nozzle attached to
its end.
 The nozzle is protected with a rubber cap against entry of moisture.
 The expellant is C02 gas in a cartridge which is sealed.
 The C02 gas cartridge is screwed to the operating head which is' fixed with a piercing
mechanism.
 Dry chemical powder is filled in the body in quantitie's as per capacity.

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1. Various types of dry powder extinguishers are available in the market. Some of them
are filled with dry powders suitable for class B & C fires, and some suitable for class
A B C fires.
2. Dry chemical powders have excellent fire knocking down properties. However, for
permanent extinguishment, more often, their use will have to be followed with
discharge of extinguishing media like foam or water.
3. Dry Powder Extinguisher (stored pressure type): The construction of this type of
extinguisher is Similar to that of water (stored pressure type). The pressure
maintained inside the extinguisher is about 10 bars. It is normally fitted with a
pressure gauge and a fan-shaped nozzle.
4. Dry Powder Extinguisher (Gas Cartridge) type: 4 sizes of extinguishers of this type
are available in the market - 1kg, 2kg, and 5kg & 10 kg capacities. The sizes of the
gas cartridges also vary according to the extinguisher size. This type of extinguisher is
quite common as a requirement for various type of occupancies.

Dry Chemical powder type fire Extinguisher

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Mechanical Foam Extinguisher
The construction of this type of extinguisher is same as that of C02 Gas expelled type of
water type extinguisher. Instead of water, it contains foam compound mixed in water in the
ratio mentioned by the supplier.

Mechanical foam fire Extinguisher

Halon Extinguishers:
 In India Halon 1211 extinguishers are still available although they are- getting phased
out;
 The standard capacities of these extinguishers are 1.25 kg, 2.5 kg, 4 kg, 5 kg & 6.5
kg;
 They are quite effective on fires in electrical / electronic equipment;
They are getting replaced gradually by other extinguishers containing Halon alternatives
CABINETS
Mounting
The wall mounted fire hose cabinet requirement shall be as follows:

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 i. The cabinet shall be firmly mounted on the wall and rigid to take either one or two
fire hose weight.
ii. The cabinet shall be constructed of non-combustible material and maintenance free.
iii. The cabinet lock, if provided, shall be of the type that could be operated manually
from the inside without the use of a key when the front plain glass/plastic (minimum
300mm x 300mm) is broken by the fire fighter.
iv. The cabinet swing door shall be made open-able such that it will not obstruct the
retrieving of the fire hose by the fire fighter.
v. The depth of the cabinet shall not exceed 250mm for one fire hose or 350mm for two
fire hoses.
vi. The cabinet shall be painted in a contrasting colour such that it is conspicuous and
easily identified.
vii. The wording, “FIRE HOSE”, with letter height of at least 50mm and shown in
contrasting colour, shall be painted directly on the front panel.

Page 47 of 52
Page 48 of 52
FIRE ALARM SYSTEM
A fire alarm system has a number of devices working together to detect and warn people
through visual and audio appliances when smoke, fire, carbon monoxide or other
emergencies are present. These alarms may be activated automatically from smoke detectors,
and heat detectors or may also be activated via manual fire alarm activation devices such as
manual call points or pull stations. Alarms can be either motorized bells or wall mountable
sounders or horns. They can also be speaker strobes which sound an alarm, followed by a
voice evacuation message which warns people inside the building not to use the elevators.
 Fire alarm control panel (FACP) OR fire alarm control unit (FACU); This component,
the hub of the system, monitors inputs and system integrity, controls outputs and
relays information.
 Primary power supply: Commonly the non-switched 120 or 240-volt alternating
current source supplied from a commercial power utility. In non-residential
applications, a branch circuit is dedicated to the fire alarm system and its constituents.
"Dedicated branch circuits" should not be confused with "Individual branch circuits"
which supply energy to a single appliance.
 Secondary (backup) power supplies: This component, commonly consisting of sealed
lead-acid storage batteries or other emergency sources including generators, is used to
supply energy in the event of a primary power failure. The batteries can be either
inside the bottom of the panel or inside a separate battery box installed near the panel.
 Initiating devices: These components act as inputs to the fire alarm control unit and
are either manually or automatically activated. Examples would be devices such as
pull stations, heat detectors, and smoke detectors. Heat and smoke detectors have
different categories of both kinds. Some categories are beam, photoelectric,
ionization, aspiration, and duct.

Page 49 of 52
  Notification appliances: This component uses energy supplied from the fire alarm
system or other stored energy source, to inform the proximate persons of the need to
take action, usually to evacuate. This is done by means of a pulsing incandescent
light, flashing strobe light, electromechanical horn, electronic horn, chime, bell,
speaker, or a combination of these devices. Strobes are either made of a xenon tube
(most common) or recently LEDs.
 Building safety interfaces: This interface allows the fire alarm system to control
aspects of the built environment and to prepare the building for fire, and to control the
spread of smoke fumes and fire by influencing air movement, lighting, process
control, human transport and exit
 Automatic fire detection and alarm systems are designed to warn building occupants
of a fire situation, they do not generally intervene in the fire growth process except
where interfaced with a fire suppression or other fire control system.
These systems generally use smoke, heat or flame detectors to detect the outbreak of fire and
to alert building occupants and the fire service. Manual call points which allow an occupant
who discovers fire to raise the alarm may also be included in the system.
Single station residential smoke alarms, as installed in most homes, are the simplest system
for detecting a fire and warning the building occupants.
The time between the outbreak of fire and the commencement of fire fighting is the single
most important factor in fire control and can be effectively reduced by having the system
monitored directly by the fire service.
Fire alarm systems must be heard by the building occupants in all parts of the building. To
achieve this, they are often connected to occupant evacuation warning and
intercommunication systems which sound a defined ‘beep - beep – beep’ throughout the
building when the detection system has been activated.
Sometimes these systems automatically close smoke and fire doors, operate flashing warning
lights, stop air-conditioning systems
SNORKEL LADDER
 Snorkel ladder also known as an aerial device, elevating work platform (EWP) or
mobile elevating work platform (MEWP) is a mechanical device used to provide
temporary access for people or equipment to inaccessible areas, usually at height.
 There are different types of mechanized access platforms and the individual types
may also be known as a cherry picker or a scissor lift.
 They are generally used for temporary, flexible access purposes such as maintenance
and construction work or by fire fighters for emergency access, which distinguishes
them from permanent access equipment such as elevators.
 They are designed to lift limited weights usually less than a ton, although some have a
higher safe working load distinguishing them from most types of cranes.
 They are usually capable of being set up and operated by a single person.
 This type of ladder is now widely used for maintenance and construction in all types
including power and telecommunication industries to service overhead lines to
provide an independent work platform on difficult or dangerous trees.

Page 50 of 52
CONFIGURING, SIZING AND SPACE REQUIREMENTS FOR FIRE FIGHTING
EQUIPMENTS
i. Portable extinguishers shall be installed in every building except dwelling units.
ii. Portable extinguishers with a gross weight not greater than 20kg shall be installed so
that the extinguisher shall be mounted 1m above the floor level.
iii. Portable extinguishers having a gross weight of 20 kg or less shall be installed so that
the top of the extinguisher is not more than 1.5m above the floor.
iv. The operating instructions of portable extinguishers shall face outward when the
extinguishers are located in cabinets, in wall recesses or on shelves.
 Under normal circumstances, a building below 24m in habitable height would not
require rising mains.
 However, if such buildings have very large floor area or footprint, whereby its
internal areas are outside the coverage of a fire hose length of 38m from the fireman
access panels, it is recommended that the internal rising mains to be incorporated to
cover these areas
 Size of rising mains: The minimum nominal bore of a rising main shall be:
o 100mm where the rising main does not exceed 45m in height and only one landing
valve is provided at each floor.
 Location of rising mains: The entire pipe work and landing valves comprising each
rising main system inside the building shall be confined:
o within a ventilated lobby of a protected lobby approach stairway, where this is
provided, or in such other protected areas as may be agreed with the Fire Authority.
o Rising mains shall be so located that they are protected against mechanical and fire
damage.
o No part of a rising main shall be placed in any shaft containing a gas, steam or fuel
pipelines or electrical cables and wirings

Wet Rising Mains system for building height not exceeding 60m

Page 51 of 52
Mounting
The wall mounted fire hose cabinet requirement shall be as follows:
i. The cabinet shall be firmly mounted on the wall and rigid to take either one or two
fire hose weight.
ii. The cabinet shall be constructed of non-combustible material and maintenance free.
iii. The cabinet lock, if provided, shall be of the type that could be operated manually
from the inside without the use of a key when the front plain glass/plastic (minimum
300mm x 300mm) is broken by the fire fighter.
iv. The cabinet swing door shall be made open-able such that it will not obstruct the
retrieving of the fire hose by the fire fighter.
v. The depth of the cabinet shall not exceed 250mm for one fire hose or 350mm for two
fire hoses.
vi. The cabinet shall be painted in a contrasting colour such that it is conspicuous and
easily identified.
vii. The wording, “FIRE HOSE”, with letter height of at least 50mm and shown in
contrasting colour, shall be painted directly on the front panel.

Page 52 of 52
 AR 6611 REGULATION
2013
BUILDING
YEAR
SERVICES III 2018 - 2019
SEMESTER : VI

UNIT V –
ACOUSTICS
FACULTY IN-CHARGE: VANDHANA MURALIDHARAN
TOPICS
Fundamentals & Sound waves ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 02

Frequency ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 03

Intensity & wave length ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 04

Measure of sound -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 05

Decibel scale -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 05

Speech and music frequencies ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 05

Reverberation time ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 06

Acoustics and building design ------------------------------------------------------------------------ 06

Site selection -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 07

Shape & volume ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 07

Treatment for interior surfaces ----------------------------------------------------------------------- 09

Basic principles in designing open air theatres & cinemas --------------------------------------- 13

Broadcasting studios ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

Concert halls -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 14

Lecture halls -------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 15

Class rooms & School --------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 16

Residences ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 17

Office buildings including constructional measures & sound reinforcement systems -- 19 - 20

Page 1 of 24
FUNDAMENTALS
ACOUSTICS
 Acoustics is defined as the science that deals with the production, control,
transmission, reception, and effects of sound.
 The physical principles of this science are utilized in architecture to attain distinct
hearing conditions in enclosed spaces.
ARCHITECTURAL ACOUSTICS
Architectural acoustics is the science of controlling sound in buildings. Embraces all aspects
of acoustical design for all types of architectural spaces, in order to optimize environments
for many functions such as,
 Business
 Learning
 Worship
 Communication
 Broadcasting and Entertainment
Architectural acoustics determine the ability of an enclosure to reflect sound waves in such a
way so as to produce distinct hearing.
SOUND
1. A sound is a vibration in an elastic medium, which may be a solid, liquid, or gas,
which can be registered by the ear.
2. It can be pleasant or unpleasant, loud or soft, high or low. Sound is made by
vibrations, something moving back and forth. Stretch a rubber band tightly between
your fingers, and pluck it. You can see it quiver and hear the sound it makes.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND WAVES
Sound travels through the solid medium very fast (as solid molecules are densely packed).
Sound travels through the liquid medium little slowly when compared to solid (as liquid
molecules are loosely packed). Sound travels through air medium very slowly when
compared to all medium (as gas molecules are very loosely packed).

MEDIUM SPEED

AIR (AT 20OC) 340 m/s

WATER (AT 0OC) 1500 m/s
IRON (AT 20OC) 5130 m/s

 Speed of sound is 340m/s. Speed of sound depends upon the medium which it travels
and its properties

Page 2 of 24
  Sounds are generally audible to the human ear if their frequency (number of
vibrations per second) lies between 20 and 20,000 vibrations per second, but the range
varies considerably with the individual.
 The range of audible sound is also differentiated into 3main categories. Subsonic or
low frequency sound is defined in the range of 20Hz to about 500Hz.Midrange
frequencies inhabit the realm of 500Hz to 6 KHz (6000Hz) with high frequency sound
defined in the remaining 6 KHz to 20 KHz.
 Those with frequencies above the audible range are called ultrasonic. A sound wave is
usually represented graphically by a wavy, horizontal line; the upper part of the wave
(the crest) indicates a condensation and the lower part (the trough) indicates a
rarefaction.

GENERATION OF SOUND WAVES

 Sound waves are generated by any vibrating body. For example, when a violin string
vibrates upon being bowed or plucked, its movement in one direction pushes the
molecules of the air before it, crowding them together in its path.
 When it moves back again past its original position and on to the other side, it leaves
behind it a nearly empty space, i.e., a space with relatively few molecules in it.
 In the meantime, however, the molecules which were at first crowded together have
transmitted some of their energy of motion to other molecules still farther on and are
returning to fill again the space originally occupied and now left empty by the
retreating violin string.
FREQUENCY
 The number of cycles per unit of time is called the frequency. For convenience,
frequency is most often measured in cycles per second (cps) or the interchangeable
Hertz (Hz) (60 cps = 60 Hz).
 Frequency is the speed of the vibration, and this determines the pitch of the sound. It
is only useful or meaningful for musical sounds, where there is a strongly regular
waveform. Frequency is measured as the number of wave cycles that occur in one
second. The unit of frequency measurement is Hertz (Hz for short).

Page 3 of 24
WAVELENGTH
 The wavelength of sound is the distance between analogous points of two successive
waves.
λ=c/f
Where,
λ = wavelength (m)
c = speed of sound (m/s)
f = frequency

SOUND INTENSITY
 The sound intensity in a specified direction is the amount of sound energy flowing
through a unit area normal to that direction. The sound intensity is normally measured
in watt per square metre (W/m2).
 The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale.

Page 4 of 24
MEASURE OF SOUND
Sound is measured in Decibel using an instrument called sound level meter.
DECIBEL
It is the unit used to measure the intensity of sound (db)
DECIBEL SCALE
The scale for measuring intensity is the decibel scale. The threshold of hearing is assigned a
sound level of 0 decibels (abbreviated 0 dB); this sound corresponds to an intensity of 1*10-
12 W/m2. A sound which is 10*10 or 100 times more intense (1*10-10 W/m2) is assigned a
sound level of 20 db.

SPEECH FREQUENCY
 The voiced speech of a typical adult male will have a fundamental frequency from 85
to 180 Hz, and that of a typical adult female from 165 to 255 Hz.
 Thus, the fundamental frequency of most speech falls below the bottom of the "voice
frequency" band as defined above.
MUSIC FREQUENCY
Music in its simplest form is monotonic; that is, composed only of pure tones. Monotonic
music is dull and lifeless like a 1990s ringtone (worse than that even); like a 1970s digital
watch alarm (now we're talking); like an oscillating circuit attached to a speaker built by a
college student in an introductory physics class (so primitive).
Real music, however, is polytonic — a mixture of pure tones played together in a manner that
sounds harmonious. A sound composed of multiple frequencies like that produced by a
musical instrument or the human voice would still be periodic, but would be more complex
than just a simple sine curve.

Page 5 of 24
  Like many other mechanical systems, musical instruments vibrate naturally at several
related frequencies called harmonics. The lowest frequency of vibration, which is also
usually the loudest, is called the fundamental.
 The higher frequency harmonics are called overtones. The human auditory system
perceives the fundamental frequency of a musical note as the characteristic pitch of
that note.
 The amplitudes of the overtones relative to the fundamental give the note its quality or
timbre. Timbre is one of the features of sound that enables us to distinguish a flute
from a violin and a tuba from a timpani.
REVERBERATION
 The prolongation of sound as a result of successive reflections in an enclosed space
after the source of sound is turned off is called reverberation. Reverberation is a
multiple reflection of a sound wave. Conditions Required for Reverberation
 Distance between the source and reflecting body is less than 17m.
 It is heard in an empty room or newly built building.

REVERBERATION TIME
It is defined as the time required for the steady sound to decay 60db from its initial level.
ECHO
The repetition of sound which is reflected from walls of large room or distant surface is
called echo.
ACOUSTICS AND BUILDING DESIGN-SITE SELECTION
General principles and factors involved in acoustical design are

Page 6 of 24
  Site selection and planning
 Volume size and Height
 Shape
 Treatment of interior surfaces
 Reverberation
 Seat, arrangement and audience
 Sound absorption
SITE SELECTION AND PLANNING
 Prevailing noises in that area should be considered which might affect the acoustics of
the building.
 Identify some of the important objectionable noise such as
o Automobile traffic on busy streets
o Traffic on highways
o Railways
o Airports
o Industrial establishments, etc.
 We can control the outdoor noise level by proper site selection and orientation
 When air conditioning is provided special care should be taken to reduce plant noise.
 Design should be done in such a way that background noise level of not more than 40
to 45 db is achieved within the hall.
VOLUME SIZE AND HEIGHT
 In planning the volume of the hall, height is of greater importance than either length
or breadth.
 Volume of area for musical concert should be quite large
 For theatres (required for speeches) halls of small volumes are used.
 An auditorium which is to be used for both music as well as speech can be provide
with intermediate volume.
 Following values may be taken for reference for deciding the volume of an
auditorium
o Public lecture halls 2.8 to 3.7 cu m per person
o Cinema theatres 3.7 to 4.2 cu m per person
o Musical concert halls 4.2 to 5.6 cu m per person
SHAPE
 Shape of the room is more important consideration in the acoustic design of the
auditorium as it is the governing factor in correcting the defects like echoes, sound
foci, dead spots, etc.
 It is very important for better distribution of the intensity of sound
 Usually the shape of auditorium is expressed in terms of the ratio of height, width,
and length of the hall.
 The ceiling height for a room or hall to be used for speech and music is kept varying
from 1/3rd to 2/3rd of the width of the room or hall. The lower ratio should be
adopted for very large halls and higher ratio for smaller rooms.

Page 7 of 24
 The most solid choices are fans, rectangles and modified polygons.

 Behaviour of sound in a hall is different from that in the open air and it is easier to
create desirable acoustic conditions in an auditorium rather than in open air theatre.
 The floor plan of the auditorium may have many typical possible shapes, such as
rectangular, fan shaped, horse shoe, circular, oval etc.

Page 8 of 24
TREATMENT OF INTERIOR SURFACES
Along with the overall shape and size of the auditorium, the treatment of interior surfaces
i.e. ceiling and side walls also play an important part in acoustical design.
 The ceilings and side walls should provide favourable reflections or reinforce the
sound that reaches the rear parts of a large auditorium.
 Ceiling splays or titled portions of the ceilings can be arranged or devised to reinforce
the sound.
 All the reflections of the original sound must reach the listener within 45 milliseconds
of the direct sound. Any sound reaching him after 45 milliseconds of the arrival of
direct sound will be heard an echo.
 To avoid the interfering echo’s effective ceiling and wall reflectors should be within 8
meters of the sound source.
 Plain side walls are normally found suitable.
 The concave ceiling surfaces such domes, vaults, etc., must be avoided as they result
in formation of echoes.
 To avoid echoes further, a smooth ceiling should not be parallel to the floor.
 The convex shaped walls are, however, considered best to reduce the echoes to great
extent.
 To avoid sound foci due to curved ceilings, the radius of curvature of the ceilings
should be made at least twice the height, or less than half the ceiling height.

Page 9 of 24
Page 10 of 24
REVERBERATION
 For direct orchestral music, the reverberation time required is about 15% longer than
that for unaided speech.
 For choral music it is about 40% longer. This is because of the fact that in music,
blending of sounds is desirable, especially when the succeeding sounds are
harmonious.
 In speech excessive reverberation leads to a blurring effect.
SEATING ARRANGEMENT AND AUDIENCE
 The seat and seating arrangement i.e. furnishings and the audience contribute to a
great extent to the absorption present in the room.
 Absorption coefficient for seated audience = 0.46m2 sabins
 Absorption coefficient for plain seat = 0.02m2 sabins and for cushioned seat = 0.10 to
0.2 m2 sabins
 The distance of the front row works out to be about 3.5m for drama and it should be
4.5m or more for cinema purpose.
 The width of seat should be 45 to 55 cm.
 The back to back distance of chairs in successive rows of seats should be at least
85cm but may be more up to 105cm depending upon the comfort desired.

SOUND ABSORPTION
 To keep the optimum reverberation time within limits and to minimize the
objectionable reflections of sound, sound absorbing materials or acoustical materials
are used.
 The material placed near the edge where ceiling meets a wall is about 2 times more
effective than the material placed near the centre of the wall.
 In case the material is placed in the corner of the ceiling, then it is about 3 times more
effective than the material placed near the centre of wall.
 The absorption coefficient of soft plaster is about 3 to 4 times than that of hard plaster
and for distemper is higher than paint.
 Wood panelling has a fairly high coefficient at lower frequency where reverberation is
larger.

Page 11 of 24
  Audience for an auditorium absorbs 70 to 80% of sound as compared with 100% open
window
 Cushioned seats and backs of the chairs absorbs a lot of sound.
 Thus in a cinema theatre, if carpets and cushioned seats are provided then number of
audience is not much of importance.
 In case of churches and halls where bare wooden seats are provided, audience strength
carries a greater importance. Sometimes for increasing absorption, heavy curtains can
be hung on the plastered walls.
SOUND ABSORBING MATERIALS
 On striking any surface, sound is either absorbed or reflected.
 The sound energy absorbed by an absorbing layer is partially converted into heat but
mostly transmitted to the other side.
 A good sound absorber is an efficient sound transmitter and consequently an
inefficient sound insulator.
 Classification:
1. Porous materials
2. Panel or membrane absorbers,
3. Cavity resonators.
POROUS MATERIALS
 Fibreboards, soft plasters, mineral wools, and isolation blankets, is a cellular network
of interlocking pores.
 Incident sound energy is converted into heat energy within these pores, while the
remainder, reduced energy is reflected from the surface of the material.
CHARACTERISTICS
1. Their sound absorption is more efficient at high frequencies
2. Their acoustical efficiency improves in the low frequency Range with increase in
thickness.
PREFABRICATED ACOUSTICAL UNITS
 Cellulose -perforated, imperforated, fissured, or textured
 Mineral fibre tiles, lay in panels,
 Perforated metal pans with absorbent pads
ACOUSTICAL PLASTERS AND SPRAYED-ON MATERIALS
 These acoustical finishes are used mostly for noise reduction purposes and sometimes
in auditoriums where any other acoustical treatment would be impractical because of
the curved or irregular shape of the surface.
 These are applied in semi plastic consistency, either by spray gun or by hand
troweling.

Page 12 of 24
PANEL ABSORBERS
 Any impervious material installed on a solid backing but separated from it by an air
space will vibrate when struck by sound waves.
 The flexural vibration of the panel will then absorb certain amount of incident sound
energy by converting it into heat energy.
 Among auditorium finishes and constructions the following panel absorbers
contribute to low- frequency absorption: wood and hard board panels, gypsum boards,
rigid plastic boards, windows, doors, glazing, etc.
SPACE ABSORBERS
 Sound absorbing objects, called space absorbers, can be suspended as individual units
from the ceiling when the regular boundary enclosures of an auditorium do not
provide suitable or adequate area for conventional acoustical treatment
 These are made of perforated sheets in the shape of panel, prisms, cubes, spheres, etc.,
are Generally filled or lined with sound absorbing materials such as rock wool, glass
wool etc. Their acoustical efficiency depends on their spacing.
 In order to achieve a reasonable amount of room absorption, it is essential that a large
number of space absorbers be used within a space.

Common shapes that promote sound diffusion

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN DESIGNING OPEN AIR THEATRES & CINEMAS

 An outdoor theatre can be planned to seat as many as 3,000 spectators without the use
of amplification for the actors' voices.
 Fan shaped plan with diverging side walls has been considered to be best shape for
cinema theatres.
 The ceiling of the auditorium should be splayed type, with a slight upward, slope
Height, width, and length ratio should be approximately as 1:2:3.
 The surfaces near the source of sound should be polished hard and reflecting than
those of distant or rear walls of absorbent material.
 The volume for a sound film theatres should be between 3.5 to 4.5m3 per seat.

Page 13 of 24
  Avoiding curved surfaces and using sound absorbing materials on the rear walls to
prevent echo.
 Optimum reverberation time should be attained finally after acoustical analysis and
treatment for correction towards the rear side.

DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR CONCERT HALLS

 The noise level should be brought down to 30- 35db.
 The reverberation time should be at least 1.6 seconds and audience factor can be
assumed to be full.
 The volume per seat should be between 4.5 and 6 m3 and more for large houses.
 There should be provision for hard reflecting surfaces about the platform, flat ceiling
having lining of reflecting material and absorbent distant walls. To avoid backward
reflection to the platform, the surface of rear walls should be of absorbing material,
divided into panels.
 The floor and seating area should be absorbent.
 The use of wooden surfaces for lining results in resonation and enrichment of musical
notes.
Ceiling
 Central area of the ceiling should be sound reflecting.
 The perimeter and rear to be provided with sound absorbing materials like acoustic
tiles.

Page 14 of 24
Sidewalls
 Sidewalls should be sound reflecting and diffusing with as many irregularities as
possible.
 For example, making doorway wider at one side of the wall keeping windows etc.,
and the back wall is treated with deep sound absorbing finish.
Floor
 All aisles are carpeted except in front of the stage to make full noise control
 Fabric upholstered seats are used.
 Absorptive and cushioned seats will give stable reverberation.
Balconies
 Use balconies to increase seating capacity and to reduce the distance to the farthest
row of seats.
DESIGN PRINCIPLES FOR LECTURE HALLS
 The optimum reverberation time should not exceed 1.5 seconds, even for large halls.
 The volume per seat should be between 3 and 4 cu m.
 The hard reflecting surface on the back and around the dias or stage, inclining slightly
outwards, should be provided.
 The rear walls facing against the dias or platform should be treated with absorbing
materials.
CONSIDERATIONS
 Recommended reverberation time is 1.0-1.5 seconds.
 Although the seating area will provide absorption, thereby reducing the reverberation
time, absorptive materials to the other surfaces within the space should be added.
 It is vital to control the reflections from the back wall.
 A concave back should be avoided. If not it has to be treated with absorptive material.
 Splay or use irregular surfaces on the walls to avoid flutter echoes.
 Parallel reflective surfaces can allow sound to "ricochet" back and forth between the
surfaces. This potentially annoying condition is referred to as standing wave or flutter
echo. It is avoided by constructing non-parallel surfaces or by adding absorptive
materials to the surface(s).
 Consider faceting the ceiling to help with sound dispersion.
 Control the reverberation time on the stage. Ideally, the reverberation time in the stage
area should be the same as in the house. Since the stage area might have a higher
ceiling than the rest of the auditorium, more absorptive materials might be required in
this area. Frequently, the back wall of the stage, and possibly one or two of the side
walls, is treated with an acoustically absorptive material, typically black in color.
 The space will be less absorptive when only half full, since the audience itself is
absorptive. By using absorptive seating areas, the reverberation time will remain more
consistent regardless of the audience size.

Page 15 of 24
  Noise from the lobby area can be disruptive. Be sure openings such as doorways are
properly sealed. Consider a vestibule door system.
 Persons seated deep under a balcony might experience auditory distortion. To avoid
this, the balcony should be no deeper than twice its height. Ideally, the balcony should
not be any deeper than its height.
 Even if everything else is controlled perfectly, the space might not be usable if the
background noise (e.g. HVAC system) is too loud. To help protect your design, the
NC level should not exceed 20 to 35.
 Beware of potential outdoor noise impacting your space. For example, is your
location near a flight path, a railroad or freeway? If so, you might have to pay critical
attention to blocking this noise. To do so effectively, you must address not only the
isolation quality of the exterior wall, but also for the possibly weaker building
elements, such as the windows, doors and HVAC systems.
CLASS ROOMS, LECTURE HALLS & SCHOOLS
 A Room With its Dimension AS 7m in length, 8.5m in width and 4m in height
considered satisfactory for a class of about 40 students.
 The ratio of length to width may be kept or brought down to 40Db.
 The amount of absorptive material to be used for each class room for achieving
optimum time of reverberation depends upon the room size, purpose, capacity and age
of the students. Hence a class room of children having less absorption on their
account requires more absorptive materials to be used for the walls and the ceiling
that would be required in rooms for adults.
 The optimum reverberation time should be between 0.75 seconds at frequencies of
500 to 2000 c.p.s. and 9 seconds at frequency of 125 c.p.s.(cycles per second).
 The volume should be kept as small as possible usually 12 sq.m or less.
 The audience should be seated near the lecture platform and seats may be arranged
elevating upwards from the platform.
 The walls and ceiling should be properly designed to give favourable reflections of
sound.
RADIO BROADCASTING STUDIOS
 The basic requirements of a radio broadcasting studio are
1. Perfect sound proofing or noise insulation
2. Variable reverberation time
 To accomplish the first requirement, the floors, walls and ceiling must be rigid,
massive construction to minimize transmission of sound by diaphragm like vibrations
and reduce resonant reflection to a minimum.
 To achieve variable reverberation time is important.
 Different reverberation times are required for each program such as speech, low and
high frequency music, etc.
 This requirement is fulfilled by several means given below:
a) A number of studio rooms. Each with different absorption suited to a particular type
of broadcast are provided.

Page 16 of 24
 b) In some studios, arrangement of hinged panels or shutters in the walls is adopted. One
surface of the rotatable panel is made absorptive while the other one is kept reflective.
This construction device is cheap and easy to maintain.
c) In some studios the rotatable cylinders are fitted in the ceiling of the studio to control
the acoustical conditions of the room.
d) In this arrangement the cylinders consists of drums divided into number of parts
(usually with different absorptive materials. By means of rack and pinion arrangement
one or any other surfaces can be rotated or turned to expose any degree of absorption
in the room.

a) The noise level in the studio should be brought down to 25 to 30 Db.

b) The ratio of H: W: L should be 2:3:5.
c) The shape of the studio should be rectangular with flat ceiling.
d) Reverberation time should be correct in relation to the volume and absorbing surfaces
to give frequency characteristics of the variety of broadcast.
e) Provision of windows in the studio should be minimum so as to minimize the transfer
of noise from outside to inside of the building.
f) The studio rooms must be reasonably airtight and should be ventilated with
conditioned air supplied through silenced grilles.
g) Air conditioning plants and such other equipment should be suitably insulated so that
their vibrations are not carried up to the working chambers of the studio.
PRINCIPLES IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDING ACOUSTICS
 Building acoustics is the science of controlling noise within buildings. This includes
minimising noise transmission between compartments and the control of sound
characteristics within a space.
 The term ‘building acoustics’ embraces both sound insulation and sound absorption.
Sound Insulation Sound insulation is used to describe the reduction of sound that
passes between two spaces separated by a dividing element.
 The sound energy that passes between these two spaces may occur through the
dividing element (direct transmission) or through the surrounding structure (indirect
or flanking transmission).
 It is important to distinguish between both methods of sound transmission as the walls
and floors which flank the dividing element, can sometimes contribute significantly to
the level of sound transmission.
 The presence of nearby windows, doors, service ducts, etc. can also affect the level of
sound transmission performance.

Page 17 of 24
KEY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR SOUND
Suspended ceiling voids
It is recommended that where sound insulation is important, partitions should, if possible,
extend fully to the structural soffit. Sound can travel through a suspended ceiling void over
the top of a partition where it abuts the underside of the ceiling.
Composite constructions
A common mistake made when designing a dividing element is to specify a high performance
construction which incorporates a lower performance element e.g. a doorway. Consideration
should be given to the weakest element of the construction and the possible effect it will have
on the overall sound resistance.

Deflection heads
 Where structural movement needs to be accommodated with a deflection head detail
at the top of a Gyproc partition system, by definition, movement must be
accommodated. It is very difficult to achieve an airtight seal at this location.
 Loss of sound insulation can be kept to a minimum by including cloaking angles
either side of the deflection detail. Deflection head (subject to fire performance)
Penetrations
 The sound insulation performance of all Gyproc partition systems are quoted as
imperforate membranes. Penetrations made through the systems will downgrade the
sound insulation performance and should be avoided where sound insulation is
critical.
 Adopting best practice detailing can help to minimise the reduction in sound
performance.

Page 18 of 24
ACOUSTIC PRIVACY
Two main factors affect the level of acoustic privacy achieved when designing a building:
 The sound insulation performance of the structure separating the two spaces
 The ambient background noise present within the listening room.

ACOUSTIC DESIGN PRINCIPLES IN OFFICES

Conference Rooms and Private Offices
Though conference rooms and private offices have stationary partitions from the floor to the
suspended acoustical ceiling, acoustical problems can still occur. Most workplace
environments should have quiet havens—places where private conversations can occur
without being heard in adjacent rooms or passageways for employee matters, contract
negotiations, classified discussions, etc.
Some problems that occur in private offices:
 Inability to have private discussions
 Can hear sounds through partitions
 Too noisy in room

Page 19 of 24
Sound can travel over partition walls and through the suspended acoustical ceiling. To be an
effective sound barrier between rooms, partitions need to extend to the structural deck.
Solutions:
 Extend walls from floor to structural deck above.
 Insulate partition cavity/increase partition sound transmission class (STC).
 Specify NRC of 0.75 for ceiling tiles.
 Employ ducted air return system.
 Do not locate mechanical equipment rooms next to offices and conference rooms.
Day-lit Offices and Classrooms
 When open ceilings are designed into a building project to optimize day lighting into
offices and classrooms, quite often suspended acoustical ceilings are eliminated and
the exposed surfaces are painted with highly reflective paint to throw daylight well
into the space.
 The sound absorption value lost by the absence of the suspended ceiling must be
replaced in other ways to prevent the space from becoming a highly reverberant field.
 High reverberation times are not conducive to concentration and effective learning.
 For office areas with exposed ceiling structure, specify low reverberation times (0.6–
0.8 seconds) to minimize echoing and unwanted sound reinforcement.
 In other words, the majority of the effective sound absorbing materials in a space are
in the suspended acoustical ceiling. If you design the space without a suspended
acoustical ceiling, you must provide sound absorption somewhere else: partitions,
banners, drapes, etc.
 Carpet on the floor does not replace the lost overhead sound absorption though it
reduces footfall noise.
Adhere to the “ABC” model of acoustic design
 “A” stands for sound absorptive materials, which can be used to control the amount of
reflected sound within a room, like certain ceiling and wall treatments, and absorptive
surfaces on furniture.
 “B” stands for sound blocking (transmission loss—a good thing) between spaces.
 “C” refers to the ability of background noise and specifically electronic sound
masking to cover intruding noises such as speech within a space so that it is either not
intelligible or even audible to unintended listeners.
SOUND REINFORCING SYSTEM
The goal of an electronic sound reinforcing system is to provide all listeners with good
hearing conditions where the unamplified sound would not be sufficient.
For good speech intelligibility the direct signal from the loud speakers to the listeners ears
must be louder than any competing sound (satisfactory signal to noise ratio) and be free from
distortion.
The three basic elements of a sound reinforcing system are
1. Microphone

Page 20 of 24
 2. Electronic controls
3. Loudspeakers

1. MICROPHONE
 Converts sound energy into electric energy.
 To avoid feedback, they normally should be located out of the loudspeaker coverage.
 Types consist of dynamic moving coil (thin diaphragm, set into vibration by sound
waves, moves coil of wire between two magnetic poles, generating electric potential.
 Ribbon type( vibration of moving coil, where aluminium composite ribbon acts as
diaphragm and one turn coil)
 Condenser (polarized movable thin diaphragm vibrates in front of fixed plate
changing capacitance to vary an electric signal).
2. ELECTRONIC CONTROLS
 Used to increase the magnitude of the electric signal (amplifier) to distribute electric
energy to high frequency and low frequency loudspeakers at the proper level.
 To control feeds from microphones in large multi microphone systems (mixers) and to
allow tone control for signal shaping (equalizers) in order to match the system output
with the acoustical properties of the room.
 Control console should be located where the operator can hear the mixture of natural
sound (called live sound) and reinforced sound as the audience hears it.
 The best location would be a slightly off center locations at the rear third point of the
seating area on the main floor or at front of balcony.
 Control area requires more than 50 ft.

CONTROL/ MIXING CONSOLES

 Reinforces the sound from microphones and further processes the signal processing.
Often includes elaborate frequency controls for producing a different array of sounds.

POWER AMPLIFIERS

 Provides a signal output from the control console with sufficient power to feed the
loudspeakers.

Page 21 of 24
  To avoid losing signal from line resistance between the power amp and loudspeakers
very heavy gauge wiring is used, especially in large sound systems.
3. LOUD SPEAKERS
 Convert electric energy into airborne sound. They should be positioned so their direct
sound will be evenly distributed at the proper sound level to all listeners in the room.
 The distance between a loudspeakers and its most distant listener can be longer for
spaces, which have low reverberation time and use highly directional loudspeakers.
 High frequency horn loudspeaker tweeter). The flared shape of the horn gives
direction to the shorter wavelengths of high frequency sound energy.

TYPES OF SOUND REINFORCING SYSTEMS

1. Central- cluster of loudspeakers located above the actual source of sound

2. Distributed- array of speakers located over the listeners.
3. Seat integrated- loudspeakers located in the backs of seats.
4. Combination

CENTRAL LOUDSPEAKER SYSTEM

 Usually locates the loudspeaker or cluster of loudspeakers 20 to 40 ft above and

slightly in front of the actual source of sound.
 This system can provide maximum realism because the listener will hear the
amplified sound from the direction of the live source location.
 Loudspeakers usually can be hidden in plenums above suspended sound absorbing
ceilings. (Usually not exceed 45- 50 dB)

Page 22 of 24
DISTRIBUTED LOUDSPEAKER ARRANGEMENT

 Distributed loudspeaker arrangement utilizes a large number of speakers distributed

uniformly over a large audience area.
 Loudspeakers are recessed in the ceiling but can be placed in the backs of pews.
 These systems are commonly used in
o Rooms with low ceilings
o If audience does not have adequate line of sight to central system.
o Rooms with movable partitions.
o Rooms with movable seating.

Absorption coefficient

The absorption coefficient is a common quantity used for measuring the sound absorption of
a material and is known to be the function of the frequency of the incident wave. It is defined
as the ratio of energy absorbed by a material to the energy incident upon its surface.

Page 23 of 24
Page 24 of 24
 QUESTION PAPER CODE: 40619
B.Arch DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2018
SIXTH SEMESTER
AR 6611 – BUILDING SERVICES III
(REGULATION 2013)
TIME: 3 HOURS MAXIMUM: 100 MARKS
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
PART – A (10 X 2 = 20 MARKS)
1) Write the laws of thermodynamics.
2) What is the latent heat of fusion?
3) What is the purpose of compressor in an AC unit?
4) Name any two refrigerants.
5) What are the factors you will consider in choice of air conditioners?
6) Mention the advantage of raised access flooring.
7) What is a fire drill?
8) How do you ensure fire exits are identified during fire?
9) Write the unit of sound and reverberation time.
10) How does sound behave when it’s on a concave surface?

PART – B (5 X 16 = 80 MARKS)
11. a) List down and explain the components of window air conditioning unit.

(OR)

b) Discuss the mechanical equipment and components needed for installation of air
conditioning system in a building.

12. a) Draw the vapour compression cycle and explain the air conditioning process.

(OR)

b) i. Discuss the role of cooling towers.

ii. Explain the principles of refrigeration with relevant examples.

13. a) From a case study, explain the distribution of air conditioning in vertical and horizontal
ways.

(OR)

b) Suggest the area and location in a multi- storey office complex for installation of central
air conditioning unit and its components.

1
14. a) Explain the working of any four types of fire detection and extinguishing systems.

(OR)

b) Enlist the fire safety norms to be followed in auditorium as per NBC 2005.

15. a) Suggest an acoustic design proposal for a recording studio.

(OR)

b) i. Write the principles of sound design.

ii. Write the procedure for calculation of reverberation time.

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2
 QUESTION PAPER CODE: 57837
B.Arch DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2016
SIXTH SEMESTER
AR 6611 – BUILDING SERVICES III
(REGULATION 2013)
TIME: 3 HOURS MAXIMUM: 100 MARKS
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
PART – A (10 X 2 = 20 MARKS)
1) Brief the condensate cycle.
2) Explain the term air handling units.
3) What is the concept of air distribution system?
4) Classify the window types in air conditioning system.
5) Mention the two main criteria for designing an air conditioning system for small
buildings.
6) Give examples for energy conservation measures.
7) Briefly explain fire alarm system.
8) State the function of sprinkler systems.
9) What meant by reverberation.
10) List few insulating fittings and gadgets.
PART – B (5 X 16 = 80 MARKS)
11. a) Explain the following with neat sketches-

i. Condensate cycle

ii. Air cycle

iii. Chilled water cycle

iv. Cooling water cycle

(OR)

b) Briefly discuss about the importance and working of refrigerant controlled devices with
neat sketches.

12. a) Discuss various systems of air conditionings for small buildings in detail.

(OR)

b) Describe the function of cooling tower and fan room with sketches.

13. a) List the choices of cooling systems of large buildings. Explain each choice in detail.

(OR)
1
b) Suggest an important design criteria recommended for selecting the air conditioning
systems for commercial buildings.

14. a) Sketch and write in detail about the egress design for theatres.

(OR)

b) Elaborate the need and importance of fire resistance, fire detection, fire protection and fire
fighting in buildings with examples.

15. a) How will you enclosure the sound proofing of a lecture hall? Sketch the details.

(OR)

b) Draw and explain the step by step procedure for the acoustical design for an open air
theatres.

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2
 QUESTION PAPER CODE: 71406
B.Arch DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2017
SIXTH SEMESTER
AR 6611 – BUILDING SERVICES III
(REGULATION 2013)
TIME: 3 HOURS MAXIMUM: 100 MARKS
ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS
PART – A (10 X 2 = 20 MARKS)
1) Explain the basic refrigeration principles.
2) Describe the significance of vapour compression cycle.
3) Write notes on different types of Air-conditioning systems.
4) Write about the purpose of Air-cooled and water-cooled condensers.
5) Describe about Air-conditioning distribution of systems.
6) Explain about energy conservation measures in Air-conditioning systems.
7) Explain about fire-safety design principles.
8) Write briefly about fire detection and fire fighting systems.
9) Write notes on sound waves and measure of sound.
10) Explain significance of reverberation time.

PART – B (5 X 16 = 80 MARKS)
11. a) Give an account on principles and process involved in Air-conditioning.

(OR)

b) Discuss in detail the types and functions of refrigerant control devices.

12. a) explain in detail the Air-conditioning system for a small building.

(OR)

b) Describe in detail the functioning of central plant chilled water system in office buildings.

13. a) Elaborate in detail design criteria for air conditioning system for large buildings.

(OR)

b) Illustrate the details of grouped horizontal distribution of air conditioning system for large
building.

14. a) Discuss in detail the fire safety planning consideration for auditoriums as per NBC.

(OR)

1
b) Explain the features of fire fighting pumps and water requirement for fire protection
system in an auditorium of 1200 capacity.

15. a) Illustrate the procedure of calculating RT for contemporary – concert hall of 750
capacity. Assume relevant data.

(OR)

b) Describe in detail the basic acoustical principles followed for designing Broadcasting
studio.

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