ADVANCED

STRUCTURES
UNIT 2 - STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS

•AMATUL WASEY
14131AA001

•AYESHA
14131AA002

•NAHID AFREEN
14131AA023
BEAMS
SLABS
ARCHES CANTENARIES
BEAMS
What is Beam?
•  Beam is a horizontal structure member used to carry vertical
load, shear load and sometime horizontal load.
• It is the major component of building structures. Its mainly used
in construction of bridges, trusses, and other structures which
carry vertical load. 
• Any structure member which cross section is much smaller
compare to its length and undergoes lateral load, known as
beam
• Beams transfers all the
load including self weight
to the columns
CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS
• According to end support:
• According to cross section
According to Geometry:
• 1. Straight beam
• 2. Curved beam
• 3. Tapper beam
 According to equilibrium condition:
Statically determinate beam:
• A beam is called determinate beam if it can be analyze by the basic
equilibrium condition. The support reaction can be found by using
basic equilibrium condition. These conditions are
• Summation of all horizontal forces is zero.
• Summation of all vertical forces is zero.
• Summation of all moments is zero.
• Example: Simply supported beam, Cantilever beam etc.
Statically indeterminate beam:
• If the beam cannot be analysis by using basic equilibrium
condition, known as statically indeterminate beam. The end
reaction find out by using basic equilibrium condition with
combination of other conditions like strain energy method,
virtual work method etc.

• Example: Continuous beam, fixed beam

TYPES OF RCC BEAMS
SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM:
• Singly reinforcement beam have steel provided only one side
tension an another side compression. tension takes steel load or
tensile load and compression takes concrete or compressive load.
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM:
• Doubly reinforced sections contain reinforcement both at the
tension and at the compression face, usually at the support
section only.
SINGLY REINFORCED BEAM:
• The beam that is longitudinally reinforced only in tension
zone, it is known as singly reinforced beam. In Such beams,
the ultimate bending moment and the tension due to bending
are carried by the reinforcement, while the compression is
carried by the concrete.
DOUBLY REINFORCED BEAM:
• The beam that is reinforced with steel both in tension and
compression zone, it is known as doubly reinforced beam.
This type of beam is mainly provided when the depth of the
beam is restricted. If a beam with limited depth is reinforced
on the tension side only it might not have sufficient resistance
to oppose the bending moment.
 SLABS
What is a Slab?
• Slabs are constructed to provide flat surfaces, usually
horizontal, in building floors, roofs, bridges, and other types of
structures. The slab may be supported by walls, by reinforced
concrete beams usually cast monolithically with the slab, by
structural steel beams, by columns, or by the ground.
Flat Slab
• Flat slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported directly by
concrete columns or caps. Flat slab dont have beams. They are
supported on columns itself. Loads are directly transferred to
columns. In this type of construction a plain ceiling is obtained
thus giving attractive appearance from architectural point of
view.
• The thickness of Flat slab is minimum 8″ or 0.2m. This is a
one of the types of concrete slabs.
Advantages:
•It minimizes floor-to-floor heights when there is no requirement for a deep
false ceiling. Building height can be reduced
•Auto sprinkler is easier.
•Less construction time.
•It increase shear strength of slab
•Reduce the moment in the slab by reducing the clear or effective span

Disadvantages:
•In flat plate system, it is not possible to have large span.
•Not suitable for supporting brittle (masonry) partitions.
•Higher slab thickness
• There are four different  types of concrete slabs (FLAT
SLABS):- 
• Slab without drop and column without column head(capital).
• Slab with drop and column without column head.
• Slab without drop and column with column head.
• Slab with drop and column with column head.
 Conventional Slab
• The slab which is supported with Beams and columns is called
conventional slab. In this kind of slab the thickness of slab is small
whereas depth of beam is large and load is transferred to beams and
from beams to columns. It requires more formwork when compared
with the flat slab. and there is no need of providing column caps in
conventional slab.  The thickness of conventional slab is 4″ or
10cm. 5″ to 6″ inches
• Based on length and breadth of Conventional Slab is classified into
two types:
• One-Way Slab
• Two-Way Slab
ONE WAY SLAB:
• One way slab is a slab which is supported by beams on the
two opposite sides to carry the load along one direction. In one
way slab, the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is
equal or greater than 2, i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) ≥ 2
TWO WAY SLAB:
• When a reinforced concrete slab is supported by beams on all
the four sides and the loads are carried by the supports along
both directions, it is known as two way slab. In two way slab,
the ratio of longer span (l) to shorter span (b) is less than 2.
• i.e Longer span (l)/Shorter span (b) < 2
• This types of slabs are mostly used in the floor of multi-storey
buildings.
 Hollow core ribbed
• Hollow core ribbed slabs derive their name from the voids or cores
which run through the units. The cores can function as service ducts
and significantly reduce the self-weight of the slabs, maximizing
structural efficiency.
• Hollow core ribbed slabs have excellent span capabilities, achieving
a capacity of 2.5 kN/m2 over a 16m span. The long-span capability
is ideal for offices, retail or car park developments. Slabs arrive on-
site with a smooth pre-finished soffit. In car parks and other open
structures, pre-finished soffits offer a maintenance free solution.
 Waffle Slab:-
• Waffle slab is a reinforced concrete roof or floor containing
square grids with deep sides. This kind of slab is majorly used
at entrance of hotels, Malls, Restaurants for good pictorial
view and to install artificial lighting. This a  type of slab where
we find hollow hole in the slab when the formwork is
removed. 
Sunken Slab
Slab which is provided below the washrooms to hide the sewage pipes or
sewerage pipes is called Sunken slab. Since the pipes that carry water are
concealed below the floor, care has to be taken to avoid leakage problems.
 After casting sewage pipes in the slab the slab is filled with coal or broken
pieces of bricks. There are two types of sunken slab.
• 1. The slab which is provided below the normal floor level at a depth of
200mm to 300 mm and filled with broken pieces of bricks is called Sunken
slab
ARCHES
• An Arch may be defined as mechanical arrangement of wedge-shaped blocks of
stones or bricks mutually supporting each other and supported at the end by piers or
abutments
• An arch is a structure that spans a space and supports structure and weight below it.
• Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick
architecture and their systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who were the
first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures. Function of an Arch
Function of an Arch
• The function of an Arch is to carry weight of the structure above the opening.
• Because of their shape, the blocks support each other by mutual pressure of their
own weight
• Hence, the structure remains in the position by the resistance from the support.
Type of Arch
• Geometry
•
• Materials of Construction
Flat Arch.
• Semi-circular Arch. Stone Arch.
• Segmental Arch. • Rubble Arch,
• Relieving Arch. • Ashlar Arch.
• Dutch of French Arch. Brick Arch.
• Elliptical Arch. • Rough Arch,
• Parabolic Arch. • Axed Brick Arch,
• Four centered Arch. • Gauged Brick Arch,
• Five centered Arch. • Arch of Brick bonds.
• Seven centered Arch. Concrete Arch
• Tree foil Arch. • Concrete block Arch
• Moorish Arch. • Monolithic Concrete Arch
• Ogee Arch.
• R.C.C Arch
• Multi foil Arch.
•
Wooden Arch.
Tudor Arch
Metal Arch.
Types of Arches on Geometry
Types of Arches on Geometry
Types of Arches on Geometry
Types Of Arches on Material of Construction
History of Arch
• True arches, as opposed to corbel arches, were known by a number of
civilizations in the Ancient Near East, the Levant, and Mexico, but their
use was infrequent and mostly confined to underground structures such as
drains where the problem of lateral thrust is greatly diminished.
• The ancient Romans learned the arch from the Etruscans, refined it and
were the first builders to tap its full potential for above ground buildings.
• Throughout the Roman empire, their engineers erected arch structures such
as bridges, aqueducts, and gates.
• They also introduced the triumphal arch as a military monument.
• Vaults began to be used for roofing large interior spaces such as halls and
temples, a function which was also assumed by domed structures from the
1st century BC onwards.
Examples of Arches
Catenaries
• catenary is the name for a curve that occurs naturally when a chain
of uniform density is allowed to hang. The word itself is derived
from the Latin, catena, which means chain.
• A catenary arch is a type of architectural pointed arch that follows
an inverted catenary curve. It is common in cathedrals and in Gothic
arches used in Gothic architecture. It is not a parabolic arch.
• The best way to visualize a catenary curve is to imagine the shape of
a hanging chain.
• Catenary is different from parabola
Example

Color code:
catenary
parabola

The arches of the corridor of the Teresianes’ convent are parabolas

DOMES
Definition : A dome is a element of architecture that
resembles the hollow upper half of the sphere.
 Dome is rounded vault made of either curved
segments or a shell of revolution , meaning an arch
rotated around its central axis.
 A masonry dome produces an thrust downward
and outward so domes can be divided into 2 kinds:
simple and compound , depending on the use.
DEFINATION  Elements of dome
HISTORY OF 
Coffer
DOME  Cupola
ELEMENTS
OF DOME  Lantern
TYPES OF  Oculus
DOMES  Pendentive
VAULTS  Rotunda

HISTORY OF  Squinch
VAULTS  Tholobate
TYPES OF
VAULTS  Whispering gallery
DEFINATION Coffer
HISTORY OF A coffer in architecture is a series of sunken panels.
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS

PENTEON
DEFINATION  Cupola
HISTORY OF 
A cupola is a small, most often dome like structure
DOME on top of building. It usually crowns a larger dome.
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
DEFINATION  Lantern
HISTORY OF 
A lantern is a day lighting cupola architectural
DOME element
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
DEFINATION  Rotunda
HISTORY OF 
The rotunda is any building with a circular ground
DOME plan and covered by a dome
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
DEFINATION  Squinch
HISTORY OF 
A squinch in architecture is a construction filling in
DOME the upper angles of a square room so as to form a
ELEMENTS base to receive a dome
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
DEFINATION  Tholobate
HISTORY OF 
A tholodate or drum is the upright part of building on
DOME which dome is raised
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
DEFINATION  Pendentive
HISTORY OF 
A pendentive is constructive device which allows the
DOME placement of the circular dome over the square
ELEMENTS room or elliptical over the rectangular room.
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
DEFINATION  Whispering gallery
HISTORY OF 
A whispering gallery is a circular, hemispherical,
DOME enclosure, often beneath a dome in which whispers
ELEMENTS can be heard clearly in other parts other gallery
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS

GOL GUMBAJ
DEFINATION  TYPES OF DOME
HISTORY OF • Geodesic dome
DOME • Beehive dome
ELEMENTS
OF DOME • onion dome
TYPES OF • oval dome
DOMES • hemispherical dome
VAULTS
• Cross arch dome
HISTORY OF
VAULTS • Bullbose dome
TYPES OF
VAULTS
 Geodesic Dome

DEFINATION A. Geodesic dome is a sphere or say partial spherical structure

based on a network of great circles on the surface of a
HISTORY OF sphere.
DOME The triangular elements formed by network makes it rigid
ELEMENTS B.
and also helps in distributing stress of the structure.
OF DOME C. Its main part is the joints that completes the whole sphere.
TYPES OF D. Geo means earth and desic means divided
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS Spaceship Earth At Epcot
TYPES OF Walt Disney World
A Geodesic Sphere
VAULTS
 PANELIZED DOMES

DEFINATION  The Panelized Technique Allows The Builder To Attach The

Plywood Skin To The Triangles While Safely Working On The
HISTORY OF Ground Or In A Comfortable Shop Out Of The Weather. This
DOME Method Does Not Require Expensive Steel Hubs….
ELEMENTS
OF DOME Holes Are Drilled Through The Members At Precise Locations
TYPES OF And Steel Bolts Then Connect The Triangles To Form The Dome.
DOMES These Members Are Often 2x4's Or 2x6's, Which Allow For
VAULTS More Insulation To Fit Within The Triangle
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
 CONCRETE AND FOAM PLASTIC DOMES

DEFINATION  Generally For Such Domes They Start With A Steel Framework
Dome, Wrapped With Chicken Wire And Wire Screen For
HISTORY OF Reinforcement. The Chicken Wire And Screen Is Tied To The
DOME Framework With Wire Ties.
ELEMENTS  A Coat Of Material Is Then Sprayed Or Molded Onto The Frame.
OF DOME Tests Should Be Performed With Small Squares To Achieve The
TYPES OF Correct Consistency Of Concrete Or Plastic.
 Generally, Several Coats Are Necessary On The Inside And
DOMES
Outside. The Last Step Is To Saturate Concrete Or Polyester
VAULTS Domes With A Thin Layer Of Epoxy Compound To Shed Water
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS

Concrete Plastic Dome

 HEMISPHERICAL DOME

DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS

The hemispherical dome is half of a sphere

 EXAMPLES

DEFINATION cathedral at valencia,spain

HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS

gol gumbaz,karnataka
 MATERIALS AND
MASONARY DETAILS
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS

bricks
 SAUCER DOME

DEFINATION  It is a dome having the form of a segment of a sphere,

HISTORY OF
with the center well below the springing line; a shallow
DOME dome.
 A dome that is very shallow; its radius of curvature of
ELEMENTS the dome is very large compared with its rise.
OF DOME  They exist entirely in compression so that it can be
TYPES OF built much thinnoer than other dome shapes without
DOMES becoming unstable.
VAULTS
HISTORY OF  The trade-off between the proportionately increased
VAULTS horizontal thrust at their abutments and their
TYPES OF decreased weight and quantity of materials may make
VAULTS them more economical.
 They are more vulnerable to damage from movement
in their supports.
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
 UMBRELLA DOME

DEFINATION Also called

HISTORY OF gadrooned,fluted,organ-
DOME piped,pumpkin,melon,
ELEMENTS
OF DOME ribbed,parachute, scalloped,or
TYPES OF  lobed
these domes.
are a type of dome
DOMES
divided at the base into curved
VAULTS
segments, which follow the
HISTORY OF
VAULTS curve
 of the of
The "ribs" elevation.
a dome are the
TYPES OF radial lines of masonry that
VAULTS st.peter's basilica,rome
extend from the crown down
to the springing.
 PARABOLIC DOME

DEFINATION  A parabolic dome is a unique

HISTORY OF structure in which bending
DOME stress due to the uniformly
ELEMENTS distributed load of its dead
OF DOME Hence
load
 it was widely used in
is zero.
TYPES OF buildings in ancient
DOMES times,before the advent of
VAULTS composite structure.
 However if a point load is
HISTORY OF
VAULTS applied on the apex of a
TYPES OF parabolic dome,the bending
VAULTS stress
 Hence becomes infinite.
it is found in most
ancient structures,the apex of
the dome is stiffened or the
 SAIL DOME

DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF This type can be throught of as pendentives
VAULTS That,Rather than Merely Touching each other to farm a
circular base for a drum or compound Dome,Smoothy
continue Their Curvature to farm the dome itself.The
Dome gives the impression of a square sail pinned
 VAULT
DEFINATION DEFINITION:
HISTORY OF A vault is a ceiling of brick , concrete , Stone , timber ,
DOME etc built in principle of arch.
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAU LTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAULTS
lisbon cathedral
DEFINATION TYPES 0F VAULTS
HISTORY OF  Barrel vault
DOME  Pitched brick barrel vault
ELEMENTS  Groin vault
OF DOME Rib vault
TYPES OF Fan vault
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
 BARREL VA ULT

DEFINATION • Formed by an extension of

HISTORY OF arch as an unbroken
DOME series passed together one
ELEMENTS behind another.
 Characteristics
OF DOME
• It is known as wagon or
TYPES OF tunnel vault.
DOMES
• Circular in shape and semi
VAULTS cylindrical in appearance.
HISTORY OF • Series of arches placed
VAULTS side by side is known as
TYPES OF barrel roof.
VAU LTS • It is the simplest form of
vault.
• It is best for roofing
purpose.
DEFINATION Short span barrel


HISTORY OF vaults
DOME
ELEMENTS Short span barrel vaults
 are
OF DOME those in which span is
TYPES OF shorter than its width . It is
DOMES used for the width of the
VAULTS arch ribs between which the
HISTORY OF barrel vault span.
VAULTS  Long span barrel vault
TYPES OF
VAU LTS  Long span barrel vaults are
those in which span is larger
then its width.
 
DEFINATION
JOINERY AND DETAILS
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
DEFINATION  STRENGTH
 The thrust generated against
HISTORY OF wall which is its failure.
DOME Solution :
ELEMENTS Walls should be thick(approx.
OF DOME 4m)Two
andorstrong.
TYPES OF  more vaults
DOMES should be kept parallel to
each other.
 Intersection
VAULTS of two vaults
sholud be done at right angle
HISTORY OF which is known as groin vault.
VAULTS Butressing should be done.
TYPES OF Uses:
VAU LTS church,cloisters,cellars,crypts,
hallways,caponier,etc.
 
DEFINATION
EXAMPLES
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS

Roman barrel vault Mausoleum, Recoleta

 
DEFINATION
•
MATERIALS
Bricks , stone , timber ,
HISTORY OF
DOME wood are use generally.
ELEMENTS
OF DOME • In stone barrel vault due to
TYPES OF the problem of
DOMES fenestration , they provide a
VAULTS small window which
HISTORY OF restricts the more light and
VAULTS hence for this cloister is
TYPES OF used.
VAU LTS the cloisters, new york city
 
DEFINATION
PITCHED
Bricks BRICKvertically
are installed BARREL( VAU LT
not radially ) and are
HISTORY OF •
DOME leaning at an angle.
ELEMENTS • Its construction doesn’t reaquire centering
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
  GROIN VAULT
DEFINATION
 Definition
HISTORY OF
DOME  A Groin vault (also known as a double barrel vault) is produced by the
intersection at right angles of two barrel vault.
ELEMENTS
OF DOME Characteristics

TYPES OF  The word “groin” refers to the edge between the intersecting vaults.
DOMES Sometime the arches of groin vaults are pointed instead of round.

VAULTS In comparison with a barrel vault, a groin vault provides good economies of

material and labour.
HISTORY OF  The groin vault required great skills in cutting stone to from a neat arris.
VAULTS  Difficult to construct neatly because of the geometry of cross groins.
TYPES OF The construction of groin vault can be understood most simply by

visualizing two barrel vault section at right angles merging to form a
VAU LTS squarish unit.
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
Santa maria maggiore
at guardiagrele
 
DEFINATION
CROSS ARCH A cross vault or groined vault
HISTORY OF
DOME (also sometimes known as a
ELEMENTS double barrel vault or groin vault)
OF DOME is produced by the intersection at
TYPES OF right angles of two barrel vaults.
DOMES
The word "groin" refers to the
VAULTS
so
edgethebetween
vault need
theonly be abutted
intersecting
HISTORY OF vaults.
at its four corners.
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
 
DEFINATION
STRUCTURE
 The construction method
HISTORY OF
DOME was particularly common
ELEMENTS on the basement level,
OF DOME such as at Myres Castle in
TYPES OF Scotland, or at the ground
DOMES storerooms as at Muchalls
floor level for the
VAULTS Castle in Scotland.
 accomplish the multiple
HISTORY OF
VAULTS goals of minimum
TYPES OF materials use, wide span
VAU LTS of construction, ability to
illumination,
achieve and
lateral
avoidance of lateral
DEFINATION  FAN VAULT
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS

A fan vault is a form of vault in which the ribs are all of the
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
DEFINATION  RIB VAULT
 Definition
HISTORY OF  The intersection of two or three barrel vaults produces a rib vault or ribbed
DOME vault .
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
 Characteristics
TYPES OF when they are edged with an armature of piped masonry often carved
DOMES 
in decorative patterns compare groin vault an older from of vault
VAULTS construction.
 While the mechanics of the weight of a groin vault and its
HISTORY OF transmission outwards to the supporting pillars remained as it had
VAULTS been the new use of rib vaults demonstrates the skill of the masons
TYPES OF and the grandeu of the new ideas circulating at the introduction of
VAU LTS  gothic architecture
This technique wasinnew
the in
end
theofleta
theeleventh
eleventhcentury
century.for example in
the roof of the lchoir side aisles at Durham cathedral.
Ancestors of the gothic rib vault in the Romanesque vault can be

found at caen and durham both sites of early gothic constructions and
elsewhere.
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
 
DEFINATION
TYPES OF RIB VAULTS
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS
The vault has two masonry ribs dividing
into four sections is called Quadripartite
DEFINATION
HISTORY OF
DOME
ELEMENTS
OF DOME
TYPES OF
DOMES
VAULTS
HISTORY OF
VAULTS
TYPES OF
VAU LTS

Lierne vault of the nave of chester cathedral

 - TRUSS
- FRAMES
- SPACE FRAME
• A truss is a structure composed of slender TRUSS
Members connected at their
members joined Straight Members
intersections by means of frictionless
together at their end points. Planar trusses lie pins or hinges
in a single plane.
• Typically a truss is a joint framed structure
which is designed to
sustain inclined, vertical or horizontal loads
occurring at or
between its points of supports and has the
following
characteristics:
1. Members so arranged that the truss is
loaded only at the joints
A Truss is a triangulated system of members that are structured and connected in a
way such that they only incur axial force. These members are considered two-force
members as the forces are only applied at either end of the member, resulting in
either a compression or tension force. They are commonly used as bridge designs,
given their ability to efficiently span long distances.

The joints are typically pinned connections, such that no shear or moment forces are
transferred from member to member. This is a major, yet commonly misunderstood,
the difference between truss and frame structures. A frame member will typically take
a combination of shear, axial and bending forces; whereas a truss member will only
take axial force.
COMPONENTS OF A TRUSS
 BASIC TYPES OF TRUSS
• Pitched Truss- Characterized
by its triangular shape.
It is most often used for roof
construction.

• Parallel Chord Truss- Its

named from its parallel top
and bottom chords. It is often
used for roof
construction.
Simple Truss

Compound Trusses –
constructed by
connecting two
or more simple trusses
to form
a single rigid body
Complex Trusses – truss that is
neither simple nor compound
 VARIOUS TYPES OF TRUSS

Flat Truss Queen Post Truss Bowstring Truss

King Post Truss Lenticular Truss Lattice Truss
 Analysis of Trusses
The analysis of trusses is usually
based on the following simplifying
assumptions:
•The centroid axis of each
member coincides with the line
connecting the centers of the
adjacent members and the
members only carry axial force.
•All members are connected
only at their ends by frictionless
hinges in plane trusses.
•All loads and support reactions
are applied only at the joints
• The reason for making these assumptions
is to obtain an ideal truss, i.e., a truss
whose members are subjected only to
axial forces.
• Primary Forces ≡ member axial forces
determined from the analysis of an ideal
truss
• Secondary Forces ≡ deviations from the
idealized forces, i.e., shear and bending
forces in a truss member.
• Our focus will be on primary forces. If
large secondary forces are anticipated,
the truss should be analyzed as a frame.
 Some renowned Trussed Structures

Eifel Tower
 FRAMES
Frame structures are the structures
having the combination of beam,
column and slab to resist the lateral and
gravity loads. These structures are
usually used to overcome the large
moments developing due to the applied
loading.
Types of frame structures
Frames structures can be differentiated
into:

1. Rigid frame structure

Which are further subdivided into:
Pin ended
Fixed ended

2. Braced frame structure

Which is further subdivided into:
Gabled frames
Portal frames
Rigid Structural Frame
The word rigid means ability to resist the
deformation. Rigid frame structures can be
defined as the structures in which beams &
columns are made monolithically and act
collectively to resist the moments which are
generating due to applied load.

Rigid frame structures provide more stability.

This type of frame structures resists the shear,
moment and torsion more effectively than any
other type of frame structures. That's why this
frame system is used in world's most
astonishing building Burj Al-Arab.
 Braced Structural Frames
In this frame system, bracing are usually provided between beams and columns to
increase their resistance against the lateral forces and side ways forces due to applied
load. Bracing is usually done by placing the diagonal members between the beams
and columns.

This frame system provides more efficient resistance against the earthquake and wind
forces. This frame system is more effective than rigid frame system
Pin Ended Rigid Structural Frames
A pinned ended rigid frame system usually has
pins as their support conditions. This frame
system is considered to be non rigid if its
support conditions are removed.

Fix Ended Rigid Frame Structure:

In this type of rigid frame systems end
conditions are usually fixed.
Gabbled Structural Frame:
Gabled frame structures usually have the peak at their top.
These frames systems are in use where there are possibilities
of heavy rain and snow.

Portal Structural Frame

Portal structural frames usually look like a door. This frame
system is very much in use for construction of industrial and
commercial buildings
Load path in Frame Structure:
It is a path through which the load of a frame structure is transmitted to the
foundations. In frame structures, usually the load path is:

Load first transfers from slab to beams then to from beam to columns, then
from columns it transfers to the foundation.
Advantages of Frame Structures
One of the best advantages of frame structures is
their ease in construction. it is very east to teach the
labor at the construction site.
Frame structures can be constructed rapidly.
Economy is also very important factor in the design of
building systems. Frame structures have economical
designs.
Disadvantages of Frames:
In frames structures, span lengths are usually
restricted to 40 ft when normal reinforced concrete.
Other wise spans greater than that, can cause lateral
deflections.
Comparison of Frame structures with Normal Load bearing
Traditional High Rise Building
Selection of frame structures for the high rise building is due to their versatility and advantages over
the normal traditional load bearing structures. These include the following:

Actually the performance of load bearing structures is usually dependent on the mass of structures. To
fulfill this requirement of load bearing structures, there is the need of increase in volume of structural
elements (walls, slab). This increase in volume of the structural elements leads toward the
construction of thick wall. Due to such a type of construction, labor and construction cost increases. in
construction of thick wall there will be the need of great attention, which will further reduce the speed
of construction.

If we make the contrast of load bearing structures with the framed structures, framed structures
appear to be more flexible, economical and can carry the heavy loads. Frame structures can be
rehabilitated at any time. Different services can be provided in frame structures. Thus the frame
structures are flexible in use.