Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory
Boylestad
Operational Amplifiers
Chapter 10
• An operational amplifier, or op-amp, is a very high
gain differential amplifier with high input impedance
and low output impedance.
• Typical uses of the operational amplifier are to
provide voltage amplitude changes (amplitude and
polarity), oscillators, filter circuits, and many types of
instrumentation circuits.
• An op-amp contains a number of differential
amplifier stages to achieve a very high voltage gain.
Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory © 2013 by Pearson Higher Education, Inc
Boylestad Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458 • All Rights Reserved
8
7
Single-Ended Input
• Single-ended input operation results when the input
signal is connected to one input with the other input
connected to ground.
• The input is applied to the plus input (with minus
input at ground), which results in an output having
the same polarity as the applied input signal
Double-Ended (Differential) Input
• If two opposite-polarity input signals are applied,
the operation is referred to as “double-ended.”
• An input, Vd , applied between the two input terminals
(recall that neither input is at ground), with the
resulting amplified output in phase with that applied
between the plus and minus inputs.
• The same action resulting when two separate signals
are applied to the inputs, the difference signal being
V11 – V12.
Double-Ended Output
• An input applied to either input will result in outputs
from both output terminals, these outputs always
being opposite in polarity.
• The signal applied to the plus input results in two
amplified outputs of opposite polarity.
• A single output measured between output
terminals(not with respect to ground). This difference
output signal is V01 – V02.
• The difference output is twice as large as either V01 or
V02 because they are of opposite polarity and
subtracting them results in twice their amplitude
Common-Mode Operation
• When the same input signals are applied to both
inputs, common-mode operation results.
• Ideally, the two inputs are equally amplified, and
since they result in opposite-polarity signals at the
output, these signals cancel, resulting in 0-V output.
• Practically, a small output signal will result.
Common-Mode Operation
Common-Mode Rejection
• A significant feature of a differential connection is
that the signals that are opposite at the inputs are
highly amplified, whereas those that are common to
the two inputs are only slightly amplified—the
overall operation being to amplify the difference
signal while rejecting the common signal at the two
inputs.
Common-Mode Rejection
• Since noise (any unwanted input signal) is generally
common to both inputs, the differential connection
tends to provide attenuation of this unwanted input
while providing an amplified output of the difference
signal applied to the inputs.
• This operating feature is referred to as common-mode
rejection .
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
CIRCUIT
• Notice that the circuit has two separate inputs and
two separate outputs, and that the emitters are
connected together.
• Whereas many differential amplifier circuits use two
separate voltage supplies, the circuit can also operate
using a single supply.
BiFET, BiMOS, AND CMOS DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
• An IC unit containing a differential amplifier built

using both bipolar (Bi) and junction field-effect
(FET) transistors is referred to as a BiFET circuit.
• An IC unit made using both bipolar (Bi) and
MOSFET (MOS) transistors is called a BiMOS
circuit.
• A circuit built using opposite-type MOSFET
transistors is a CMOS circuit.
BiFET, BiMOS, AND CMOS DIFFERENTIAL
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS
• n MOS On/Off Operation
• An input of 0 V leaves the nMOS “off,” whereas an
input of 5V turns the nMOS on.
• p MOS On/Off Operation

• VGS 0 V leaves pMOS “off;” VGS 5 V turns
pMOS on.
Ch.10 Summary
The Basic Op-Amp
Operational amplifier (Op-amp): A high gain differential

amplifier with a high input impedance (typically in M) and
low output impedance (less than 100).
Note the op-amp has two inputs and one output.
Ch.10 Summary
Op-Amp Gain
Op-Amps can be connected in open-loop or closed-loop

configurations.
Open-loop: A configuration with no feedback from the op-amp

output back to its input. Op-amp open-loop gain typically exceeds
10,000.
Closed-loop: A configuration that has a negative feedback path

from the op-amp output back to its input. Negative feedback
reduces the gain and improves many characteristics of the op-amp.
• Closed-loop gain is always lower than open-loop gain.
Ch.10 Summary
Inverting Op-Amp
The input signal is applied to

the inverting (–) input
The non-inverting input (+)
is grounded
The feedback resistor (Rf)
is connected from the output
to the negative (inverting)
input; providing negative
feedback.
Ch.10 Summary
Inverting Op-Amp Gain

Gain is set using external resistors: Rf and R1
Vo R f
Av  
V i R1
Gain can be set to any value

by manipulating the values of
Rf and R1.
Unity gain (Av = 1):
Rf  R1
 Rf
Av   1
R1
The negative sign denotes a 180 phase shift between input and output.
Ch.10 Summary
Virtual Ground
Virtual ground: A term used

to describe the condition
where Vi  0 V (at the inverting
input) when the noninverting
input is grounded.
The op-amp has such high input

impedance that even with a high
gain there is no current through
the inverting input pin, therefore
all of the input current passes
through Rf.
Ch.10 Summary
Common Op-Amp Circuits
Inverting amplifier
Noninverting amplifier
Unity follower
Summing amplifier
Integrator
Differentiator
• The output is obtained by multiplying the input by a
fixed or constant gain, set by the input resistor ( R1 )
and feedback resistor ( Rf )—this output also being
inverted from the input
• Inverting amplifier connection is more widely used
because it has better frequency stability
Ch.10 Summary
Inverting/Noninverting Amplifiers
Inverting Amplifier Noninverting Amplifier
 Rf Rf
Vo  V1 Vo  (1  )V1
R1 R1
Ch.10 Summary
Unity Follower
The unity-follower circuit, provides a gain of unity (1)
with no polarity or phase reversal.
Vo  V1
Ch.10 Summary
Summing Amplifier
Because the op-amp

has a high input
impedance, the
multiple inputs are
treated as separate
inputs.
R R R 
Vo   f V1  f V2  f V3 
 R1 R2 R3 
Ch.10 Summary
Integrator
The output is the

integral of the input;
i.e., proportional to the
area under the input
waveform. This circuit
is useful in low-pass
filter circuits and sensor
conditioning circuits.
1
v o (t )  
RC  v 1(t )dt
Ch.10 Summary
Differentiator
The differentiator
takes the derivative
of the input. This
circuit is useful in
high-pass filter
circuits.
dv 1(t )
v o (t )  RC
dt
Ch.10 Summary
DC-Offset Parameters
Even when the input voltage is zero, an op-amp can have an

output offset. The following can cause this offset:
Input offset voltage

Input offset current
Input offset voltage and input offset current
Input bias current
Ch.10 Summary
Input Offset Voltage (VIO)
The specification sheet for an op-amp indicates

an input offset voltage (VIO).
The effect of this input offset voltage on the

output can be calculated with
R1  Rf
Vo(offset)  VIO
R1
Output Offset Voltage Due to Input Offset Current I
IO
• Result due to any difference in dc bias currents at
both inputs. Since the two input transistors are never
exactly matched, each will operate at a slightly
different current.
Ch.10 Summary
Input Offset Current (IIO)
If there is a difference between the dc bias currents generated by

the same applied input, this also causes an output offset voltage:
The input offset current (IIO) is specified in the specifications for

an op-amp.
The effect of IIO on the output offset voltage can be calculated

using:
V o ( offset )  Vo ( offset due to VIO )  Vo ( offset due to I IO )
Ch.10 Summary
Total Offset Due to VIO and IIO
Op-amps may have an output offset voltage due to VIO

and IIO. The total output offset voltage equals the sum of
the effects of both:
Vo (offset )  Vo (offset due to VIO )  Vo (offset due to IIO )
Ch.10 Summary
Input Bias Current (IIB)

A parameter that is related to input offset current (IIO) is called
input bias current (IIB)
The input bias currents are calculated using:

IIO IIO
IIB  IIB  IIB  IIB 
2 2
The total input bias current is the average of the

two:
IIB  IIB
IIB 
2
Ch.10 Summary
Frequency Parameters
An op-amp is a wide-bandwidth amplifier. The

following factors affect the bandwidth of the op-
amp:
Gain
Slew rate
Ch.10 Summary
Gain and Bandwidth

The op-amp’s high
frequency response is
limited by its internal
circuitry. The plot shown
is for an open loop gain
(AOL or AVD). This means
that the op-amp is
operating at the highest
possible gain with no
feedback resistor.
In the open loop mode, an op-amp has a narrow bandwidth. The

bandwidth widens in closed-loop mode, but the gain is lower.
Ch.10 Summary
Slew Rate (SR)
Slew rate (SR): The maximum rate at which an op-

amp can change output without distortion.
ΔVo
SR  (in V/s)
Δt
The SR rating is listed in the specification sheets

as the V/s rating.
Ch.10 Summary
Maximum Signal Frequency
The slew rate determines the highest

frequency of the op-amp without distortion.
SR
f 
2πVp
where VP is the peak voltage
DIFFERENTIAL AND COMMON-MODE OPERATION
• Differential Inputs
• Common Inputs
Output Voltage
• V d difference voltage
• Vc common voltage
• Ad differential gain of the amplifier
• Ac common-mode gain of the amplifier
Ch.10 Summary
General Op-Amp Specifications
Other op-amp ratings found on specification

sheets are:
Absolute Ratings
Electrical Characteristics
Performance
Ch.10 Summary
Absolute Ratings
These are
common
maximum ratings
for the op-amp.
Ch.10 Summary
Electrical Characteristics
Note: These ratings are for specific circuit conditions, and they often
include minimum, maximum and typical values.
Ch.10 Summary
CMRR
One rating that is unique to op-amps is CMRR or common-mode

rejection ratio.
Because the op-amp has two inputs that are opposite in phase
(inverting input and the non-inverting input) any signal that is
common to both inputs will be cancelled.
Op-amp CMRR is a measure of the ability to cancel out common-

mode signals.
The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the
common mode voltage gain
CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms
Ch.10 Summary
Op-Amp Performance
The specification sheets

will also include graphs
that indicate the
performance of the op-
amp over a wide range of
conditions.

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Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

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Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory

• An IC unit containing a differential amplifier built

• p MOS On/Off Operation

The Basic Op-Amp

Operational amplifier (Op-amp): A high gain differential

Note the op-amp has two inputs and one output.

Op-Amps can be connected in open-loop or closed-loop

Open-loop: A configuration with no feedback from the op-amp

Closed-loop: A configuration that has a negative feedback path

The input signal is applied to

Inverting Op-Amp Gain

Gain can be set to any value

Virtual ground: A term used

The op-amp has such high input

Common Op-Amp Circuits

Because the op-amp

The output is the

Even when the input voltage is zero, an op-amp can have an

Input offset voltage

Input Offset Voltage (VIO)

The specification sheet for an op-amp indicates

The effect of this input offset voltage on the

Input Offset Current (IIO)

If there is a difference between the dc bias currents generated by

The input offset current (IIO) is specified in the specifications for

The effect of IIO on the output offset voltage can be calculated

Total Offset Due to VIO and IIO

Op-amps may have an output offset voltage due to VIO

Vo (offset )  Vo (offset due to VIO )  Vo (offset due to IIO )

Input Bias Current (IIB)

The input bias currents are calculated using:

The total input bias current is the average of the

An op-amp is a wide-bandwidth amplifier. The

Gain and Bandwidth

In the open loop mode, an op-amp has a narrow bandwidth. The

Slew Rate (SR)

Slew rate (SR): The maximum rate at which an op-

The SR rating is listed in the specification sheets

Maximum Signal Frequency

The slew rate determines the highest

where VP is the peak voltage

General Op-Amp Specifications

Other op-amp ratings found on specification

One rating that is unique to op-amps is CMRR or common-mode

Op-amp CMRR is a measure of the ability to cancel out common-

CMRR can also be expressed in logarithmic terms

The specification sheets

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